(a) The area had a semi-arid climate, with frequent rainfall
', 'media': ''}, {'text': '(b) The area suffered drought and had fertile soil
', 'media': ''}, {'text': '(c) The area had fertile soil and experienced heavy rainfall
', 'media': ''}, {'text': '(d) The area had a dry, arid climate with little rainfall
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","media":""},{"text":"(b) The area suffered drought and had fertile soil
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","media":""},{"text":"(d) The area had a dry, arid climate with little rainfall
","media":""}]', 'actual_answer': {'args': ['(d) The area had a dry, arid climate with little rainfall
'], 'partial': []}, 'variable_questions_config': {'options': []}}, 'question_data': 'Why were hydroponic principles used in the famous Hanging gardens in Mesopotamia in the 6th century?
', 'question_type': 'mcq_single_correct', 's_question_id': 895724117, 'marking_scheme': None, 'negative_marks': 0, 'question_media': [], 'auto_evaluation': False, 'cloud_questions': None, 'group_questions': {'g_id': '27f3b985-3df4-45e2-aba0-2f18237cbe16', 'common_content': "Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Hydroponics is a branch of agriculture where plants are grown without the use of soil. The nutrients that the plants normally derive from the soil are simply dissolved into the water instead, and the plant's roots are suspended in, flooded with, or misted with the nutrient solution so that the plant can derive the elements it needs for growth. Built around the 6th century, the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), are largely believed to have functioned according to hydroponic principles. The area suffered from a dry, arid climate that rarely saw rain, hence, had arid soil and it‘s believed that the lush gardens were watered using a chain pull system, which carried water up from the river and allowed it to trickle down to each step or landing of the garden structure.
Hydroponics offers some significant benefits over traditional farming. First, hydroponics offers people the ability to grow food in places where traditional agriculture simply isn't possible. In areas with arid climates, hydroponics has been in use for decades. Similarly, hydroponics is useful in dense urban areas, where land is at a premium. In Tokyo, hydroponics is used in lieu of traditional soil-based plant growth. With so little space available for planting, places like Alaska and Russia, where growing seasons are shorter, use hydroponic greenhouses, where light and temperature can be controlled to produce higher crop yields.
Hydroponics systems require only around 10 percent of the water that soil-based agriculture requires. This is due to the fact that hydroponic systems allow recycling and reuse of water and nutrient solutions and the fact that no water is wasted. Similarly, hydroponics requires little or no pesticides and only around 25 percent of the nutrients and fertilizers required of soiI-based plants. This represents not only cost savings but also benefits the environment in that no chemicals are being released into the air. Finally, as hydroponics allows produce to be grown locally and requires fewer areas to import their crops, there is a reduction in both price and greenhouse gas emissions due to reduced transportation requirements.
So why isn't hydroponics taking over? This is due to several distinct disadvantages associated with these systems. The first is the high capital investment when compared with soil farming. Though hydroponics is typically much cheaper over time, it does require a substantial upfront cost to establish any sort of larger system. Next, there's the threat of power failure, which can cause pumps to stop working and ruin crops. Finally, many people fear that hydroponics requires substantial know-how and research, when in fact, it's very similar to traditional gardening. After all, plants rely on certain nutrients in order to grow, and these nutrients don't change, no matter which system you‘re using.
", 'question_media': []}, 'fillup_questions': None, 'block_programming': None, 'diagram_questions': None, 'project_questions': None, 'answer_explanation': '{"args":["The first paragraph mentions that the area (in discussion) suffered from a dry and arid climate and rarely experienced rainfall. \'Arid\' means having little or no rain.
\'Arid‘ is also used for soil if it does not support vegetation. So, all options mentioning fertile soil are incorrect. So, options b) and c) are incorrect.
The climate was arid, and not semi-arid. So, option a) is incorrect.
The area suffered from a dry climate and not a wet climate. Hence, option e) is incorrect as well.
Option d) mentions the correct features of the climate that the area suffered from and hence, they started using hydroponics.
Hence, option d) is correct.
(d) The area had a dry, arid climate with little rainfall
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', 'media': ''}, {'text': 'No use of soil to grow crops
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', 'media': ''}, {'text': 'Larger amount of water is used to grow crops than in traditional agriculture
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","media":""}]', 'actual_answer': {'args': ['No use of soil to grow crops
'], 'partial': []}, 'variable_questions_config': {'options': []}}, 'question_data': 'Which of the following options best describes the system of hydroponics?
', 'question_type': 'mcq_single_correct', 's_question_id': 895724118, 'marking_scheme': None, 'negative_marks': 0, 'question_media': None, 'auto_evaluation': False, 'cloud_questions': None, 'group_questions': {'g_id': '27f3b985-3df4-45e2-aba0-2f18237cbe16', 'common_content': "Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Hydroponics is a branch of agriculture where plants are grown without the use of soil. The nutrients that the plants normally derive from the soil are simply dissolved into the water instead, and the plant's roots are suspended in, flooded with, or misted with the nutrient solution so that the plant can derive the elements it needs for growth. Built around the 6th century, the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), are largely believed to have functioned according to hydroponic principles. The area suffered from a dry, arid climate that rarely saw rain, hence, had arid soil and it‘s believed that the lush gardens were watered using a chain pull system, which carried water up from the river and allowed it to trickle down to each step or landing of the garden structure.
Hydroponics offers some significant benefits over traditional farming. First, hydroponics offers people the ability to grow food in places where traditional agriculture simply isn't possible. In areas with arid climates, hydroponics has been in use for decades. Similarly, hydroponics is useful in dense urban areas, where land is at a premium. In Tokyo, hydroponics is used in lieu of traditional soil-based plant growth. With so little space available for planting, places like Alaska and Russia, where growing seasons are shorter, use hydroponic greenhouses, where light and temperature can be controlled to produce higher crop yields.
Hydroponics systems require only around 10 percent of the water that soil-based agriculture requires. This is due to the fact that hydroponic systems allow recycling and reuse of water and nutrient solutions and the fact that no water is wasted. Similarly, hydroponics requires little or no pesticides and only around 25 percent of the nutrients and fertilizers required of soiI-based plants. This represents not only cost savings but also benefits the environment in that no chemicals are being released into the air. Finally, as hydroponics allows produce to be grown locally and requires fewer areas to import their crops, there is a reduction in both price and greenhouse gas emissions due to reduced transportation requirements.
So why isn't hydroponics taking over? This is due to several distinct disadvantages associated with these systems. The first is the high capital investment when compared with soil farming. Though hydroponics is typically much cheaper over time, it does require a substantial upfront cost to establish any sort of larger system. Next, there's the threat of power failure, which can cause pumps to stop working and ruin crops. Finally, many people fear that hydroponics requires substantial know-how and research, when in fact, it's very similar to traditional gardening. After all, plants rely on certain nutrients in order to grow, and these nutrients don't change, no matter which system you‘re using.
", 'question_media': []}, 'fillup_questions': None, 'block_programming': None, 'diagram_questions': None, 'project_questions': None, 'answer_explanation': '{"args":["The first paragraph mentions hydroponics as a branch of agricutlure in which plants are grown without the use of soil. So, \'minimal or greater use of soil\' is incorrect about hydroponics. Hence, options (a) and (c) are incorrect.
Option (b) is correct as it mentions \'no use of soil\'
The third paragraph mentions that hydroponics requires only 10 percent of the water is used in soil-based agriculture. So, it is incorrect to say that larger amount of water is required for hydroponics. So, option (d) is incorrect.
Hence, (b) is correct
"]}', 'frontend_technology': None, 'htmlcssjs_questions': None, 'programming_question': None, 'question_editor_type': 1, 'file_upload_questions': None, 'previous_attempt_data': {'q_id': '12ff0e01-189a-4f35-b3d7-40f42b8addbe', 'state': 3, 'r_value': 0, 'attempt_no': 0, 'base_score': 1, 'time_ratio': 0, 'time_score': 0, 'delta_value': 0, 'final_score': 1, 'marks_score': 0, 'effort_score': 0, 'attempt_score': 0, 'program_score': 0, 'negative_score': 0, 'positive_score': 0, 'time_of_attempt': '"2024-02-28T06:50:54.115Z"', 'descriptive_score': 0, 'current_attempt_score': 0, 'difficulty_mark_score': 0}, 'video_answer_speaking': None, 'classification_questions': None, 'descriptive_answer_writing': None, 'essay_email_writing_questions': None, 'programming_file_based_question': None, 'manual_difficulty': 'Medium', 'blooms_taxonomy': None, 'video_solution': None, 'subject': {'subject_id': '3639c0f6-9b40-43d2-aafc-90150e1cbf7b', 'name': 'Aptitude'}, 'topic': {'topic_id': '1c73a995-728c-4e2a-b9bb-262db072f58a', 'name': 'Verbal Ability'}, 'sub_topic': {'sub_topic_id': 'f1f542a3-d24a-4814-8359-bebaf472513d', 'name': 'Reading Comprehension'}, 'feedback': False, 'course_outcome': None, 'program_outcome': None, 'student_questions': {'s_question_id': 895724118, 'q_id': '12ff0e01-189a-4f35-b3d7-40f42b8addbe', 'marks': 2, 'answer': '["No use of soil to grow crops
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", 'question_type': 'mcq_single_correct', 's_question_id': 895724119, 'marking_scheme': None, 'negative_marks': 0, 'question_media': [], 'auto_evaluation': False, 'cloud_questions': None, 'group_questions': {'g_id': '27f3b985-3df4-45e2-aba0-2f18237cbe16', 'common_content': "Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Hydroponics is a branch of agriculture where plants are grown without the use of soil. The nutrients that the plants normally derive from the soil are simply dissolved into the water instead, and the plant's roots are suspended in, flooded with, or misted with the nutrient solution so that the plant can derive the elements it needs for growth. Built around the 6th century, the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), are largely believed to have functioned according to hydroponic principles. The area suffered from a dry, arid climate that rarely saw rain, hence, had arid soil and it‘s believed that the lush gardens were watered using a chain pull system, which carried water up from the river and allowed it to trickle down to each step or landing of the garden structure.
Hydroponics offers some significant benefits over traditional farming. First, hydroponics offers people the ability to grow food in places where traditional agriculture simply isn't possible. In areas with arid climates, hydroponics has been in use for decades. Similarly, hydroponics is useful in dense urban areas, where land is at a premium. In Tokyo, hydroponics is used in lieu of traditional soil-based plant growth. With so little space available for planting, places like Alaska and Russia, where growing seasons are shorter, use hydroponic greenhouses, where light and temperature can be controlled to produce higher crop yields.
Hydroponics systems require only around 10 percent of the water that soil-based agriculture requires. This is due to the fact that hydroponic systems allow recycling and reuse of water and nutrient solutions and the fact that no water is wasted. Similarly, hydroponics requires little or no pesticides and only around 25 percent of the nutrients and fertilizers required of soiI-based plants. This represents not only cost savings but also benefits the environment in that no chemicals are being released into the air. Finally, as hydroponics allows produce to be grown locally and requires fewer areas to import their crops, there is a reduction in both price and greenhouse gas emissions due to reduced transportation requirements.
So why isn't hydroponics taking over? This is due to several distinct disadvantages associated with these systems. The first is the high capital investment when compared with soil farming. Though hydroponics is typically much cheaper over time, it does require a substantial upfront cost to establish any sort of larger system. Next, there's the threat of power failure, which can cause pumps to stop working and ruin crops. Finally, many people fear that hydroponics requires substantial know-how and research, when in fact, it's very similar to traditional gardening. After all, plants rely on certain nutrients in order to grow, and these nutrients don't change, no matter which system you‘re using.
", 'question_media': []}, 'fillup_questions': None, 'block_programming': None, 'diagram_questions': None, 'project_questions': None, 'answer_explanation': '{"args":["Substantial means to be of considerable amount or importance.
Hence, its opposite will be \'Worthless\' meaning having no real value or importance
"]}', 'frontend_technology': None, 'htmlcssjs_questions': None, 'programming_question': None, 'question_editor_type': 1, 'file_upload_questions': None, 'previous_attempt_data': {'q_id': '790660e7-dd10-4127-907b-1c6929db327f', 'state': 3, 'r_value': 0, 'attempt_no': 0, 'base_score': 1, 'time_ratio': 0, 'time_score': 0, 'delta_value': 0, 'final_score': 1, 'marks_score': 0, 'effort_score': 0, 'attempt_score': 0, 'program_score': 0, 'negative_score': 0, 'positive_score': 0, 'time_of_attempt': '"2024-02-28T06:50:54.115Z"', 'descriptive_score': 0, 'current_attempt_score': 0, 'difficulty_mark_score': 0}, 'video_answer_speaking': None, 'classification_questions': None, 'descriptive_answer_writing': None, 'essay_email_writing_questions': None, 'programming_file_based_question': None, 'manual_difficulty': 'Medium', 'blooms_taxonomy': None, 'video_solution': None, 'subject': {'subject_id': '3639c0f6-9b40-43d2-aafc-90150e1cbf7b', 'name': 'Aptitude'}, 'topic': {'topic_id': '1c73a995-728c-4e2a-b9bb-262db072f58a', 'name': 'Verbal Ability'}, 'sub_topic': {'sub_topic_id': 'f1f542a3-d24a-4814-8359-bebaf472513d', 'name': 'Reading Comprehension'}, 'feedback': False, 'course_outcome': None, 'program_outcome': None, 'student_questions': {'s_question_id': 895724119, 'q_id': '790660e7-dd10-4127-907b-1c6929db327f', 'marks': 0, 'answer': '["Compact
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I. The initial cost of using this method is quite low.
II. There is a risk of a power outage.
III. Substantial knowledge and research are required to use this method.
", 'question_type': 'mcq_single_correct', 's_question_id': 895724120, 'marking_scheme': None, 'negative_marks': 0, 'question_media': [], 'auto_evaluation': False, 'cloud_questions': None, 'group_questions': {'g_id': '27f3b985-3df4-45e2-aba0-2f18237cbe16', 'common_content': "Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Hydroponics is a branch of agriculture where plants are grown without the use of soil. The nutrients that the plants normally derive from the soil are simply dissolved into the water instead, and the plant's roots are suspended in, flooded with, or misted with the nutrient solution so that the plant can derive the elements it needs for growth. Built around the 6th century, the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), are largely believed to have functioned according to hydroponic principles. The area suffered from a dry, arid climate that rarely saw rain, hence, had arid soil and it‘s believed that the lush gardens were watered using a chain pull system, which carried water up from the river and allowed it to trickle down to each step or landing of the garden structure.
Hydroponics offers some significant benefits over traditional farming. First, hydroponics offers people the ability to grow food in places where traditional agriculture simply isn't possible. In areas with arid climates, hydroponics has been in use for decades. Similarly, hydroponics is useful in dense urban areas, where land is at a premium. In Tokyo, hydroponics is used in lieu of traditional soil-based plant growth. With so little space available for planting, places like Alaska and Russia, where growing seasons are shorter, use hydroponic greenhouses, where light and temperature can be controlled to produce higher crop yields.
Hydroponics systems require only around 10 percent of the water that soil-based agriculture requires. This is due to the fact that hydroponic systems allow recycling and reuse of water and nutrient solutions and the fact that no water is wasted. Similarly, hydroponics requires little or no pesticides and only around 25 percent of the nutrients and fertilizers required of soiI-based plants. This represents not only cost savings but also benefits the environment in that no chemicals are being released into the air. Finally, as hydroponics allows produce to be grown locally and requires fewer areas to import their crops, there is a reduction in both price and greenhouse gas emissions due to reduced transportation requirements.
So why isn't hydroponics taking over? This is due to several distinct disadvantages associated with these systems. The first is the high capital investment when compared with soil farming. Though hydroponics is typically much cheaper over time, it does require a substantial upfront cost to establish any sort of larger system. Next, there's the threat of power failure, which can cause pumps to stop working and ruin crops. Finally, many people fear that hydroponics requires substantial know-how and research, when in fact, it's very similar to traditional gardening. After all, plants rely on certain nutrients in order to grow, and these nutrients don't change, no matter which system you‘re using.
", 'question_media': []}, 'fillup_questions': None, 'block_programming': None, 'diagram_questions': None, 'project_questions': None, 'answer_explanation': '{"args":["The last paragraph discusses a few disadvantages associated with hydroponics systems. It mentions that though, it is cheaper over time, it requires a lot of capital to establish a larger system later. So, I is incorrect as it mentions initial cost to be very low, which is incorrect.
\'Power outage\' implies power failure, and it is mentioned as one of the threats as it can cause pumps to stop working and ruin the crops. 80, II is correct.
III is incorrect because it is not that substantial knowledge is required to use this method and hence, people don\'t use this method. People fear that extensive knowledge might be required to use it, which is not true as it is very similar to traditional gardening. So, it\'s fear of people as a reason (and not the requirement of extensive knowledge) why hydroponics hasn\'t taken over as a crop-growing method.
So, only ll gives the correct reason.
Only II and III
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","media":""},{"text":"(b) The area suffered drought and had fertile soil
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', 'question_type': 'mcq_single_correct', 's_question_id': 895724121, 'marking_scheme': None, 'negative_marks': 0, 'question_media': [], 'auto_evaluation': False, 'cloud_questions': None, 'group_questions': {'g_id': '27f3b985-3df4-45e2-aba0-2f18237cbe16', 'common_content': "Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Hydroponics is a branch of agriculture where plants are grown without the use of soil. The nutrients that the plants normally derive from the soil are simply dissolved into the water instead, and the plant's roots are suspended in, flooded with, or misted with the nutrient solution so that the plant can derive the elements it needs for growth. Built around the 6th century, the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), are largely believed to have functioned according to hydroponic principles. The area suffered from a dry, arid climate that rarely saw rain, hence, had arid soil and it‘s believed that the lush gardens were watered using a chain pull system, which carried water up from the river and allowed it to trickle down to each step or landing of the garden structure.
Hydroponics offers some significant benefits over traditional farming. First, hydroponics offers people the ability to grow food in places where traditional agriculture simply isn't possible. In areas with arid climates, hydroponics has been in use for decades. Similarly, hydroponics is useful in dense urban areas, where land is at a premium. In Tokyo, hydroponics is used in lieu of traditional soil-based plant growth. With so little space available for planting, places like Alaska and Russia, where growing seasons are shorter, use hydroponic greenhouses, where light and temperature can be controlled to produce higher crop yields.
Hydroponics systems require only around 10 percent of the water that soil-based agriculture requires. This is due to the fact that hydroponic systems allow recycling and reuse of water and nutrient solutions and the fact that no water is wasted. Similarly, hydroponics requires little or no pesticides and only around 25 percent of the nutrients and fertilizers required of soiI-based plants. This represents not only cost savings but also benefits the environment in that no chemicals are being released into the air. Finally, as hydroponics allows produce to be grown locally and requires fewer areas to import their crops, there is a reduction in both price and greenhouse gas emissions due to reduced transportation requirements.
So why isn't hydroponics taking over? This is due to several distinct disadvantages associated with these systems. The first is the high capital investment when compared with soil farming. Though hydroponics is typically much cheaper over time, it does require a substantial upfront cost to establish any sort of larger system. Next, there's the threat of power failure, which can cause pumps to stop working and ruin crops. Finally, many people fear that hydroponics requires substantial know-how and research, when in fact, it's very similar to traditional gardening. After all, plants rely on certain nutrients in order to grow, and these nutrients don't change, no matter which system you‘re using.
", 'question_media': []}, 'fillup_questions': None, 'block_programming': None, 'diagram_questions': None, 'project_questions': None, 'answer_explanation': '{"args":["The first paragraph mentions that the area (in discussion) suffered from a dry and arid climate and rarely experienced rainfall. \'Arid\' means having little or no rain.
\'Arid‘ is also used for soil if it does not support vegetation. So, all options mentioning fertile soil are incorrect. So, options b) and c) are incorrect.
The climate was arid, and not semi-arid. So, option a) is incorrect.
The area suffered from a dry climate and not a wet climate. Hence, option e) is incorrect as well.
Option d) mentions the correct features of the climate that the area suffered from and hence, they started using hydroponics.
Hence, option d) is correct.
(d) The area had a dry, arid climate with little rainfall
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The internet has promoted the concept of electronic commerce. In principle, electronic commerce is no different from actual world commerce. The only difference is that electronic commerce uses the electronic medium, but the basic rules of commerce remain the same. It is true that the electronic environment has certain distinct requirement but they are merely procedural in nature and do not in any case impact the specific character of commercial transactions over the Internet. Just as immovable property can be bought and sold in the actual world, so can immovable property be sold over the internet. This is evident from numerous examples that are available on the internet.
Recently there were attempts to sell a town in California over the Internet. The auction site e-Bay ended a month-long auction of the 150 acre Mojave desert town called Amboy. This town has seven residents and has a post office, motel, church, gas station, cafe, gift shop and two landing strips. The owners of the town - the celebrity photographer, Timothy White and his business partner Wilson - had put the town to auction on e-Bay.com. It is a different matter altogether that none of the bids could match the reserve selling price of the town-. This example once again shows that immovable property can be bought and sold over the internet. However, this is the international position.
In India, we realize that the situation is dramatically different. In India, the Information Technology Act 2000, legally governs e-commerce. A perusal of the relevant provisions of the IT Act 2000 makes it clear that it does not apply to any contract for the sale or conveyance of immovable property or any interest in such property. This really means that no legal recognition is accorded to electronic transactions relating to the sale or conveyance of immovable property or any interest in such property.
Thus, legally speaking in India, you cannot buy or sell immovable property over the internet. The restriction is because of the inadequacy of the existing Indian law. The legislature may have excluded any contract for the sale or conveyance of immovable property from the ambit of the IT Act 2000 because it felt that the situation wasn't ripe for its inclusion as yet.
However, things are likely to change since India is in the process of coming up with laws relating to electronic fund transfer, etc, to further facilitate e-commerce and that includes sale of immovable property over the internet as well.
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The internet has promoted the concept of electronic commerce. In principle, electronic commerce is no different from actual world commerce. The only difference is that electronic commerce uses the electronic medium, but the basic rules of commerce remain the same. It is true that the electronic environment has certain distinct requirement but they are merely procedural in nature and do not in any case impact the specific character of commercial transactions over the Internet. Just as immovable property can be bought and sold in the actual world, so can immovable property be sold over the internet. This is evident from numerous examples that are available on the internet.
Recently there were attempts to sell a town in California over the Internet. The auction site e-Bay ended a month-long auction of the 150 acre Mojave desert town called Amboy. This town has seven residents and has a post office, motel, church, gas station, cafe, gift shop and two landing strips. The owners of the town - the celebrity photographer, Timothy White and his business partner Wilson - had put the town to auction on e-Bay.com. It is a different matter altogether that none of the bids could match the reserve selling price of the town-. This example once again shows that immovable property can be bought and sold over the internet. However, this is the international position.
In India, we realize that the situation is dramatically different. In India, the Information Technology Act 2000, legally governs e-commerce. A perusal of the relevant provisions of the IT Act 2000 makes it clear that it does not apply to any contract for the sale or conveyance of immovable property or any interest in such property. This really means that no legal recognition is accorded to electronic transactions relating to the sale or conveyance of immovable property or any interest in such property.
Thus, legally speaking in India, you cannot buy or sell immovable property over the internet. The restriction is because of the inadequacy of the existing Indian law. The legislature may have excluded any contract for the sale or conveyance of immovable property from the ambit of the IT Act 2000 because it felt that the situation wasn't ripe for its inclusion as yet.
However, things are likely to change since India is in the process of coming up with laws relating to electronic fund transfer, etc, to further facilitate e-commerce and that includes sale of immovable property over the internet as well.
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The internet has promoted the concept of electronic commerce. In principle, electronic commerce is no different from actual world commerce. The only difference is that electronic commerce uses the electronic medium, but the basic rules of commerce remain the same. It is true that the electronic environment has certain distinct requirement but they are merely procedural in nature and do not in any case impact the specific character of commercial transactions over the Internet. Just as immovable property can be bought and sold in the actual world, so can immovable property be sold over the internet. This is evident from numerous examples that are available on the internet.
Recently there were attempts to sell a town in California over the Internet. The auction site e-Bay ended a month-long auction of the 150 acre Mojave desert town called Amboy. This town has seven residents and has a post office, motel, church, gas station, cafe, gift shop and two landing strips. The owners of the town - the celebrity photographer, Timothy White and his business partner Wilson - had put the town to auction on e-Bay.com. It is a different matter altogether that none of the bids could match the reserve selling price of the town-. This example once again shows that immovable property can be bought and sold over the internet. However, this is the international position.
In India, we realize that the situation is dramatically different. In India, the Information Technology Act 2000, legally governs e-commerce. A perusal of the relevant provisions of the IT Act 2000 makes it clear that it does not apply to any contract for the sale or conveyance of immovable property or any interest in such property. This really means that no legal recognition is accorded to electronic transactions relating to the sale or conveyance of immovable property or any interest in such property.
Thus, legally speaking in India, you cannot buy or sell immovable property over the internet. The restriction is because of the inadequacy of the existing Indian law. The legislature may have excluded any contract for the sale or conveyance of immovable property from the ambit of the IT Act 2000 because it felt that the situation wasn't ripe for its inclusion as yet.
However, things are likely to change since India is in the process of coming up with laws relating to electronic fund transfer, etc, to further facilitate e-commerce and that includes sale of immovable property over the internet as well.
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The internet has promoted the concept of electronic commerce. In principle, electronic commerce is no different from actual world commerce. The only difference is that electronic commerce uses the electronic medium, but the basic rules of commerce remain the same. It is true that the electronic environment has certain distinct requirement but they are merely procedural in nature and do not in any case impact the specific character of commercial transactions over the Internet. Just as immovable property can be bought and sold in the actual world, so can immovable property be sold over the internet. This is evident from numerous examples that are available on the internet.
Recently there were attempts to sell a town in California over the Internet. The auction site e-Bay ended a month-long auction of the 150 acre Mojave desert town called Amboy. This town has seven residents and has a post office, motel, church, gas station, cafe, gift shop and two landing strips. The owners of the town - the celebrity photographer, Timothy White and his business partner Wilson - had put the town to auction on e-Bay.com. It is a different matter altogether that none of the bids could match the reserve selling price of the town-. This example once again shows that immovable property can be bought and sold over the internet. However, this is the international position.
In India, we realize that the situation is dramatically different. In India, the Information Technology Act 2000, legally governs e-commerce. A perusal of the relevant provisions of the IT Act 2000 makes it clear that it does not apply to any contract for the sale or conveyance of immovable property or any interest in such property. This really means that no legal recognition is accorded to electronic transactions relating to the sale or conveyance of immovable property or any interest in such property.
Thus, legally speaking in India, you cannot buy or sell immovable property over the internet. The restriction is because of the inadequacy of the existing Indian law. The legislature may have excluded any contract for the sale or conveyance of immovable property from the ambit of the IT Act 2000 because it felt that the situation wasn't ripe for its inclusion as yet.
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The internet has promoted the concept of electronic commerce. In principle, electronic commerce is no different from actual world commerce. The only difference is that electronic commerce uses the electronic medium, but the basic rules of commerce remain the same. It is true that the electronic environment has certain distinct requirement but they are merely procedural in nature and do not in any case impact the specific character of commercial transactions over the Internet. Just as immovable property can be bought and sold in the actual world, so can immovable property be sold over the internet. This is evident from numerous examples that are available on the internet.
Recently there were attempts to sell a town in California over the Internet. The auction site e-Bay ended a month-long auction of the 150 acre Mojave desert town called Amboy. This town has seven residents and has a post office, motel, church, gas station, cafe, gift shop and two landing strips. The owners of the town - the celebrity photographer, Timothy White and his business partner Wilson - had put the town to auction on e-Bay.com. It is a different matter altogether that none of the bids could match the reserve selling price of the town-. This example once again shows that immovable property can be bought and sold over the internet. However, this is the international position.
In India, we realize that the situation is dramatically different. In India, the Information Technology Act 2000, legally governs e-commerce. A perusal of the relevant provisions of the IT Act 2000 makes it clear that it does not apply to any contract for the sale or conveyance of immovable property or any interest in such property. This really means that no legal recognition is accorded to electronic transactions relating to the sale or conveyance of immovable property or any interest in such property.
Thus, legally speaking in India, you cannot buy or sell immovable property over the internet. The restriction is because of the inadequacy of the existing Indian law. The legislature may have excluded any contract for the sale or conveyance of immovable property from the ambit of the IT Act 2000 because it felt that the situation wasn't ripe for its inclusion as yet.
However, things are likely to change since India is in the process of coming up with laws relating to electronic fund transfer, etc, to further facilitate e-commerce and that includes sale of immovable property over the internet as well.
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The trend of women’s entry into the top echelons of management hides the seemingly insurmountable barriers that have been overcome by the protagonists in a male-dominated society. The time has come when the bias against women will become a thing of the past. Progressive organizations have been doing their level best to give talented women managers their rightful place hierarchy. Still, a lot needs to be done to shed the bias against women in Management.
Problems seen in organizations are age-old. Some of them are: Women in organizations cannot act like women nor can they act like men. If they act like men, they are considered to be unfeminine. If they act feminine, they are considered to be weak. A very narrow bandwidth of acceptable behaviour exists. They have to be lady-like and refrain from doing the things men do to gather power and control. Assertiveness and aggression are valued in men but not in women.
Further reinforcements of the Glass Ceiling: Glass Ceilings are reinforced by emphasizing the differences between the sexes and by playing gender roles. Some of the ways in which this is done are attribution, presumed male ability and transactional analysis.
Women rarely get credit for what they do: It’s always either a fluke or an accident, or somebody else did it and she took the credit. If a man gets promoted, It’s because of ability. If a woman gets promoted, she slept her way to the top. In a classic experiment men and women were asked to evaluate the intelligence, persuasiveness and style of a set of essays. The subjects were told that the essays were written either by John T. McKay, J.T. McKay, or Joan T. McKay. Although they were identical, Joan's essays received consistently lower ratings from both men and women than John’s.
Just Like a Man: the ultimate compliment Most men think that the ultimate compliment that can be paid to a woman (in terms of her professionalism) is to call her a man. As Golda Meir (first lady PM of Israel) writes, “A story once went the rounds of Israel to the effect that Ben-Gurion (a senior figure) described me as the ‘only man’ in his cabinet. What amused me about it was that obviously, he thought that this was the greatest possible compliment that could be paid to a woman. I very much doubt that any man would have been flattered if I had said about him that he was the only woman in the government”.
This kind of attitude assumes that in a man, the ability is inborn but a woman has to work hard to acquire it. By virtue of gender, a man will be expected to have no trouble with a given task, while a woman will most probably fail. The Set-Up-To Fail syndrome that plagues a number of organizations usually begins with such assumptions.
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The trend of women’s entry into the top echelons of management hides the seemingly insurmountable barriers that have been overcome by the protagonists in a male-dominated society. The time has come when the bias against women will become a thing of the past. Progressive organizations have been doing their level best to give talented women managers their rightful place hierarchy. Still, a lot needs to be done to shed the bias against women in Management.
Problems seen in organizations are age-old. Some of them are: Women in organizations cannot act like women nor can they act like men. If they act like men, they are considered to be unfeminine. If they act feminine, they are considered to be weak. A very narrow bandwidth of acceptable behaviour exists. They have to be lady-like and refrain from doing the things men do to gather power and control. Assertiveness and aggression are valued in men but not in women.
Further reinforcements of the Glass Ceiling: Glass Ceilings are reinforced by emphasizing the differences between the sexes and by playing gender roles. Some of the ways in which this is done are attribution, presumed male ability and transactional analysis.
Women rarely get credit for what they do: It’s always either a fluke or an accident, or somebody else did it and she took the credit. If a man gets promoted, It’s because of ability. If a woman gets promoted, she slept her way to the top. In a classic experiment men and women were asked to evaluate the intelligence, persuasiveness and style of a set of essays. The subjects were told that the essays were written either by John T. McKay, J.T. McKay, or Joan T. McKay. Although they were identical, Joan's essays received consistently lower ratings from both men and women than John’s.
Just Like a Man: the ultimate compliment Most men think that the ultimate compliment that can be paid to a woman (in terms of her professionalism) is to call her a man. As Golda Meir (first lady PM of Israel) writes, “A story once went the rounds of Israel to the effect that Ben-Gurion (a senior figure) described me as the ‘only man’ in his cabinet. What amused me about it was that obviously, he thought that this was the greatest possible compliment that could be paid to a woman. I very much doubt that any man would have been flattered if I had said about him that he was the only woman in the government”.
This kind of attitude assumes that in a man, the ability is inborn but a woman has to work hard to acquire it. By virtue of gender, a man will be expected to have no trouble with a given task, while a woman will most probably fail. The Set-Up-To Fail syndrome that plagues a number of organizations usually begins with such assumptions.
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The trend of women’s entry into the top echelons of management hides the seemingly insurmountable barriers that have been overcome by the protagonists in a male-dominated society. The time has come when the bias against women will become a thing of the past. Progressive organizations have been doing their level best to give talented women managers their rightful place hierarchy. Still, a lot needs to be done to shed the bias against women in Management.
Problems seen in organizations are age-old. Some of them are: Women in organizations cannot act like women nor can they act like men. If they act like men, they are considered to be unfeminine. If they act feminine, they are considered to be weak. A very narrow bandwidth of acceptable behaviour exists. They have to be lady-like and refrain from doing the things men do to gather power and control. Assertiveness and aggression are valued in men but not in women.
Further reinforcements of the Glass Ceiling: Glass Ceilings are reinforced by emphasizing the differences between the sexes and by playing gender roles. Some of the ways in which this is done are attribution, presumed male ability and transactional analysis.
Women rarely get credit for what they do: It’s always either a fluke or an accident, or somebody else did it and she took the credit. If a man gets promoted, It’s because of ability. If a woman gets promoted, she slept her way to the top. In a classic experiment men and women were asked to evaluate the intelligence, persuasiveness and style of a set of essays. The subjects were told that the essays were written either by John T. McKay, J.T. McKay, or Joan T. McKay. Although they were identical, Joan's essays received consistently lower ratings from both men and women than John’s.
Just Like a Man: the ultimate compliment Most men think that the ultimate compliment that can be paid to a woman (in terms of her professionalism) is to call her a man. As Golda Meir (first lady PM of Israel) writes, “A story once went the rounds of Israel to the effect that Ben-Gurion (a senior figure) described me as the ‘only man’ in his cabinet. What amused me about it was that obviously, he thought that this was the greatest possible compliment that could be paid to a woman. I very much doubt that any man would have been flattered if I had said about him that he was the only woman in the government”.
This kind of attitude assumes that in a man, the ability is inborn but a woman has to work hard to acquire it. By virtue of gender, a man will be expected to have no trouble with a given task, while a woman will most probably fail. The Set-Up-To Fail syndrome that plagues a number of organizations usually begins with such assumptions.
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The trend of women’s entry into the top echelons of management hides the seemingly insurmountable barriers that have been overcome by the protagonists in a male-dominated society. The time has come when the bias against women will become a thing of the past. Progressive organizations have been doing their level best to give talented women managers their rightful place hierarchy. Still, a lot needs to be done to shed the bias against women in Management.
Problems seen in organizations are age-old. Some of them are: Women in organizations cannot act like women nor can they act like men. If they act like men, they are considered to be unfeminine. If they act feminine, they are considered to be weak. A very narrow bandwidth of acceptable behaviour exists. They have to be lady-like and refrain from doing the things men do to gather power and control. Assertiveness and aggression are valued in men but not in women.
Further reinforcements of the Glass Ceiling: Glass Ceilings are reinforced by emphasizing the differences between the sexes and by playing gender roles. Some of the ways in which this is done are attribution, presumed male ability and transactional analysis.
Women rarely get credit for what they do: It’s always either a fluke or an accident, or somebody else did it and she took the credit. If a man gets promoted, It’s because of ability. If a woman gets promoted, she slept her way to the top. In a classic experiment men and women were asked to evaluate the intelligence, persuasiveness and style of a set of essays. The subjects were told that the essays were written either by John T. McKay, J.T. McKay, or Joan T. McKay. Although they were identical, Joan's essays received consistently lower ratings from both men and women than John’s.
Just Like a Man: the ultimate compliment Most men think that the ultimate compliment that can be paid to a woman (in terms of her professionalism) is to call her a man. As Golda Meir (first lady PM of Israel) writes, “A story once went the rounds of Israel to the effect that Ben-Gurion (a senior figure) described me as the ‘only man’ in his cabinet. What amused me about it was that obviously, he thought that this was the greatest possible compliment that could be paid to a woman. I very much doubt that any man would have been flattered if I had said about him that he was the only woman in the government”.
This kind of attitude assumes that in a man, the ability is inborn but a woman has to work hard to acquire it. By virtue of gender, a man will be expected to have no trouble with a given task, while a woman will most probably fail. The Set-Up-To Fail syndrome that plagues a number of organizations usually begins with such assumptions.
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An invisible barrier preventing women from rising in the organizational hierarchy.
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', 'question_type': 'mcq_single_correct', 's_question_id': 895724131, 'marking_scheme': None, 'negative_marks': 0, 'question_media': [], 'auto_evaluation': False, 'cloud_questions': None, 'group_questions': {'g_id': '7115d25d-0248-4753-a11b-2ea8047676a6', 'common_content': "Read the passage given below and answer the questions that follow.
The trend of women’s entry into the top echelons of management hides the seemingly insurmountable barriers that have been overcome by the protagonists in a male-dominated society. The time has come when the bias against women will become a thing of the past. Progressive organizations have been doing their level best to give talented women managers their rightful place hierarchy. Still, a lot needs to be done to shed the bias against women in Management.
Problems seen in organizations are age-old. Some of them are: Women in organizations cannot act like women nor can they act like men. If they act like men, they are considered to be unfeminine. If they act feminine, they are considered to be weak. A very narrow bandwidth of acceptable behaviour exists. They have to be lady-like and refrain from doing the things men do to gather power and control. Assertiveness and aggression are valued in men but not in women.
Further reinforcements of the Glass Ceiling: Glass Ceilings are reinforced by emphasizing the differences between the sexes and by playing gender roles. Some of the ways in which this is done are attribution, presumed male ability and transactional analysis.
Women rarely get credit for what they do: It’s always either a fluke or an accident, or somebody else did it and she took the credit. If a man gets promoted, It’s because of ability. If a woman gets promoted, she slept her way to the top. In a classic experiment men and women were asked to evaluate the intelligence, persuasiveness and style of a set of essays. The subjects were told that the essays were written either by John T. McKay, J.T. McKay, or Joan T. McKay. Although they were identical, Joan's essays received consistently lower ratings from both men and women than John’s.
Just Like a Man: the ultimate compliment Most men think that the ultimate compliment that can be paid to a woman (in terms of her professionalism) is to call her a man. As Golda Meir (first lady PM of Israel) writes, “A story once went the rounds of Israel to the effect that Ben-Gurion (a senior figure) described me as the ‘only man’ in his cabinet. What amused me about it was that obviously, he thought that this was the greatest possible compliment that could be paid to a woman. I very much doubt that any man would have been flattered if I had said about him that he was the only woman in the government”.
This kind of attitude assumes that in a man, the ability is inborn but a woman has to work hard to acquire it. By virtue of gender, a man will be expected to have no trouble with a given task, while a woman will most probably fail. The Set-Up-To Fail syndrome that plagues a number of organizations usually begins with such assumptions.
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After the Berlin Wall fell in 1989 the world changed dramatically. The Cold War ended and the threat of communism ended in Europe. Such Eastern European countries as Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic and Slovakia) and others stopped being Soviet satellites. "East and West Germany, meanwhile, were moving rapidly toward unification." But this was not the end. In November 1991 the Soviet Union, "the evil empire" that had kept the democratic and non-democratic world in fear and strain for almost seventy years disappeared. It left fifteen independent republics, with Russia being the largest one. Russia, out of all the former Soviet bloc states and the former Soviet Union, was the first one to fall to Communism. But also it was the last one to liberate itself from it despite all the controversy going on outside Russia such as the three-day coup of August 1991 by Brezhnev-era hard-liners. These transformations, though painful sometimes, were unexpected and startling. There could be many explanations for why Communism was being abandoned: America\'s and NATO\'s successful containment policies; the arms race bankrupting Moscow, and "mostly it was the objective fact that Communism is a rotten system." But even such reasons would have never been enough if the human beings in the oppressed countries, stayed passive. However, the human spirit can never be destroyed and there is always an opposition to the existing regime whatever it is. In totalitarian societies such as Nazi Germany or Mussolini\'s Italy dissent was outlawed and dealt with brutally. In the Soviet Union, another totalitarian state, the opposition also was always illegal until the collapse of the empire with the brief exception of Alexander Kerensky\'s provisional government in 1917.
The dissident movement had a long history of persecutions in Russia starting from the Czarist times when great national poets and writers such as Alexander Pushkin, Michael Lermontov, Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky suffered from censorship which extended to-their brilliant works. It also had two major branches: the Westernizers and the Slavophils. The split in Russian society began in the times of Peter the Great (1672\xad-1725), who reformed the administration of the state in a way unknown before to the Russian people. His reforms touched almost every aspect of Russians\' life through the introduction of European styles and traditions which Peter I learned during his year\xadlong stay in Holland and England. Ever since -then the intellectual movement was divided into two major groups of thinkers - Westernizers and Slavophils. "Westernizers were those who believed that the traditional Russian ways of life could be a bitter handicap, and the sooner Russia caught up with the West the better. The Slavophils, influenced by the German romantics, opposed westernization and idealized Russia\'s distinctiveness," One of the brightest events of the dissident movement of the 19th century was the Decembrist revolt in December of 1825; when a group of Russian army men tried, without success, to abolish Tsarist rule by refusing the oath of allegiance to a new Tsar, Nicholas I, and forcing him to abdicate. "The Decembrist conspirators were of liberal inclinations, and their background was Russian freemasonry and the Russian army." That revolt can be seen as the first sign of the major revolution to follow and that is why it is important despite its failure. It was the first attempt to change the existing order in the Russian Empire. The revolts after it were also unsuccessful until World War I, which served as a powerful catalyst for deep change.
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i) How communism view changed across Europe in late 1900s.
ii) How Russia refused to end communism and its policies.
Hence, the more suitable title would be Russia and Dissidence (refusal of policies)
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After the Berlin Wall fell in 1989 the world changed dramatically. The Cold War ended and the threat of communism ended in Europe. Such Eastern European countries as Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic and Slovakia) and others stopped being Soviet satellites. "East and West Germany, meanwhile, were moving rapidly toward unification." But this was not the end. In November 1991 the Soviet Union, "the evil empire" that had kept the democratic and non-democratic world in fear and strain for almost seventy years disappeared. It left fifteen independent republics, with Russia being the largest one. Russia, out of all the former Soviet bloc states and the former Soviet Union, was the first one to fall to Communism. But also it was the last one to liberate itself from it despite all the controversy going on outside Russia such as the three-day coup of August 1991 by Brezhnev-era hard-liners. These transformations, though painful sometimes, were unexpected and startling. There could be many explanations for why Communism was being abandoned: America\'s and NATO\'s successful containment policies; the arms race bankrupting Moscow, and "mostly it was the objective fact that Communism is a rotten system." But even such reasons would have never been enough if the human beings in the oppressed countries, stayed passive. However, the human spirit can never be destroyed and there is always an opposition to the existing regime whatever it is. In totalitarian societies such as Nazi Germany or Mussolini\'s Italy dissent was outlawed and dealt with brutally. In the Soviet Union, another totalitarian state, the opposition also was always illegal until the collapse of the empire with the brief exception of Alexander Kerensky\'s provisional government in 1917.
The dissident movement had a long history of persecutions in Russia starting from the Czarist times when great national poets and writers such as Alexander Pushkin, Michael Lermontov, Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky suffered from censorship which extended to-their brilliant works. It also had two major branches: the Westernizers and the Slavophils. The split in Russian society began in the times of Peter the Great (1672\xad-1725), who reformed the administration of the state in a way unknown before to the Russian people. His reforms touched almost every aspect of Russians\' life through the introduction of European styles and traditions which Peter I learned during his year\xadlong stay in Holland and England. Ever since -then the intellectual movement was divided into two major groups of thinkers - Westernizers and Slavophils. "Westernizers were those who believed that the traditional Russian ways of life could be a bitter handicap, and the sooner Russia caught up with the West the better. The Slavophils, influenced by the German romantics, opposed westernization and idealized Russia\'s distinctiveness," One of the brightest events of the dissident movement of the 19th century was the Decembrist revolt in December of 1825; when a group of Russian army men tried, without success, to abolish Tsarist rule by refusing the oath of allegiance to a new Tsar, Nicholas I, and forcing him to abdicate. "The Decembrist conspirators were of liberal inclinations, and their background was Russian freemasonry and the Russian army." That revolt can be seen as the first sign of the major revolution to follow and that is why it is important despite its failure. It was the first attempt to change the existing order in the Russian Empire. The revolts after it were also unsuccessful until World War I, which served as a powerful catalyst for deep change.
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Can a child ever fill the shoes of a larger-than-life parent? Rajendra Chola came to the throne of Thanjavur on the death of his illustrious father Rajaraja and enlarged his inheritance of a kingdom into an empire. This imperialistic vision was stimulated when Rajendra waged an aggressive campaign, as the commander of an expanding imperial navy and army and brought his father the crowns of Madurai and Ellam.
In return, the now thrice-crowned monarch gave his son the title Maduraikondan after his victorious tour of duty. In time Rajendra became a co-ruler with his father and affirmed his leadership qualities. During the glittering investiture, many vassals and feudatories from the north found it hard to cross the Chalukyan territory to participate in the event. This was a cause enough for the young king to plan an offensive that would be short of an invasion.
On successfully taking the campaign to the north and achieving this objective, Rajendra Chola received the water of the holy Ganga in a golden pot and brought "the waters that Bhagiratha effected to reach earth". He poured the holy water into the reservoir, the Ponneri or Cholagangai, and sanctified it as he did the Simhakenni, the holy well in the precincts of the Gangaikondacholapuram temple. The king gave himself the title Gangaikondan to commemorate this milestone. Thus Rajendra fulfilled some of his ambitions. But the young man had a greater purpose and wanted to best his father, the creator of Brihadesvaram at Thanjavur. He built a temple almost as big and a palace complex larger than the one at Thanjavur with monies from a war chest overflowing from increasingly successful campaigns. Thus came into existence, between1020-29 A.D the grand Imperial Chola temple of Gangaikondacholapuram.
To this day, a visitor has to cross wide open spaces, lush paddy fields and sugarcane groves from which the smell of freshly boiled jaggery wafts through the summer breeze and suddenly, comes upon the horizon, a striking tower reaching up to the heavens. That edifice is the temple dedicated to Siva, where the ethos is one of anugraha or benevolence and seems to be incongruent to the psyche of a warrior-king. I have witnessed the elderly priest reciting the mantra in a sonorous voice full of devotion bathing this massive linga with water and once performing abhisekha with pots of milk brought as an offering to the god by the local people. After the ceremonial bath, he goes about gently wiping the linga with a soft cloth and then drapes with panache a dhoti around the yoni-pita. Continuing to work at making the linga look resplendent, the priest applies sandal paste, kumkum and vibhuti, all the while reciting verses in His praise. All this sets the tone for a satisfying darshana and helps us to understand the visions of its founder, a staunch Sivabhakta.
Rajendra chose to dovetail his devotion to an exceptional Saiva legend of Chandesa, who sacrificed his father when he was interrupted in his worship. Siva showers his grace by symbolically wrapping a garland on the devotee\'s head, in this instance the portrait of the bhakta is supposedly Rajendra, who receives the honour for being the founder of Gangaikondacholapuram and also helps establish the divine right of kingship.
This sculpture which has pride of place at the entrance to the temple has great artistic significance and sets the tenor of representation, i.e. the bhakti and benevolence of Siva. Chandesanugrahamurti, as a theme, has been given pride of place here, although as an idea, it evolved during the Pallava rule at, Kanchi, where they reserved the northeast corner for this icon. Themes such as Vishnuanugrahamurti, wherein Vishnu, finding one flower short while offering 1,008, plucks his eye, whereupon Siva immediately bestows his grace or the occasion when Ravana shakes Mt.Kailasha, and Siva, then in the company of Uma, presses down on the mountain with a toe and gets the mighty Ravana to surrender leading to the bestowal of grace, are delineated here.
In another episode, Arjuna mistakes Siva and Uma to be ordinary hunters and gets into an altercation with them when engaged in an arduous penance with the aspiration of being granted a powerful weapon that would make him invincible. Siva bestows the Pasupata on Arjuna when he realises his sin. Rajendra\'s royal atelier was proficient in creating icons of exquisite style, working the hard granite to yield the vision of difficult themes. Umasahita is another theme that is repeatedly reworked at variance with the samhara or ugra concepts found in other royal temples. Not to say that these themes are not enshrined here but they are beautifully subdued among the idiom of benevolence.
Rajendra by matching the scale of building to that of Thanjavur, early into his kingship, made known his political acuity, flexed his economic might and announced to the world that he was an absolute monarch. His son, Rajadhiraja, ascended the throne in this temple, as did subsequent monarchs. However, the paucity of inscriptions on this temple against the massive texts on the Thanjavur temple indicates that this was "a work in progress" for a longer time. Therefore, the kings, including Rajendra, continued to record historical events and important land grants in the old capital. From certain epigraphs pertaining to Gangaikondacholapuram, we gather that some of the land grants were indeed properties transferred from Brihadesvara. The frequent contacts with northern territories and the forging of new personal relationships brought a trace of the Chalukyan influence into the shaping of this temple.
Rajendra gave his daughter, Ammangadevi, in marriage to Rajaraja of the Eastern Chalukyas and it is her son, Rajendra Chola Kulottungan, who ascended the Thanjavur throne on the death of his maternal uncles.
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', 'media': ''}, {'text': 'Lord Siva is worshipped in the grand Imperial Chola temple.
', 'media': ''}, {'text': 'This temple took a long time to be built.
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Can a child ever fill the shoes of a larger-than-life parent? Rajendra Chola came to the throne of Thanjavur on the death of his illustrious father Rajaraja and enlarged his inheritance of a kingdom into an empire. This imperialistic vision was stimulated when Rajendra waged an aggressive campaign, as the commander of an expanding imperial navy and army and brought his father the crowns of Madurai and Ellam.
In return, the now thrice-crowned monarch gave his son the title Maduraikondan after his victorious tour of duty. In time Rajendra became a co-ruler with his father and affirmed his leadership qualities. During the glittering investiture, many vassals and feudatories from the north found it hard to cross the Chalukyan territory to participate in the event. This was a cause enough for the young king to plan an offensive that would be short of an invasion.
On successfully taking the campaign to the north and achieving this objective, Rajendra Chola received the water of the holy Ganga in a golden pot and brought "the waters that Bhagiratha effected to reach earth". He poured the holy water into the reservoir, the Ponneri or Cholagangai, and sanctified it as he did the Simhakenni, the holy well in the precincts of the Gangaikondacholapuram temple. The king gave himself the title Gangaikondan to commemorate this milestone. Thus Rajendra fulfilled some of his ambitions. But the young man had a greater purpose and wanted to best his father, the creator of Brihadesvaram at Thanjavur. He built a temple almost as big and a palace complex larger than the one at Thanjavur with monies from a war chest overflowing from increasingly successful campaigns. Thus came into existence, between1020-29 A.D the grand Imperial Chola temple of Gangaikondacholapuram.
To this day, a visitor has to cross wide open spaces, lush paddy fields and sugarcane groves from which the smell of freshly boiled jaggery wafts through the summer breeze and suddenly, comes upon the horizon, a striking tower reaching up to the heavens. That edifice is the temple dedicated to Siva, where the ethos is one of anugraha or benevolence and seems to be incongruent to the psyche of a warrior-king. I have witnessed the elderly priest reciting the mantra in a sonorous voice full of devotion bathing this massive linga with water and once performing abhisekha with pots of milk brought as an offering to the god by the local people. After the ceremonial bath, he goes about gently wiping the linga with a soft cloth and then drapes with panache a dhoti around the yoni-pita. Continuing to work at making the linga look resplendent, the priest applies sandal paste, kumkum and vibhuti, all the while reciting verses in His praise. All this sets the tone for a satisfying darshana and helps us to understand the visions of its founder, a staunch Sivabhakta.
Rajendra chose to dovetail his devotion to an exceptional Saiva legend of Chandesa, who sacrificed his father when he was interrupted in his worship. Siva showers his grace by symbolically wrapping a garland on the devotee\'s head, in this instance the portrait of the bhakta is supposedly Rajendra, who receives the honour for being the founder of Gangaikondacholapuram and also helps establish the divine right of kingship.
This sculpture which has pride of place at the entrance to the temple has great artistic significance and sets the tenor of representation, i.e. the bhakti and benevolence of Siva. Chandesanugrahamurti, as a theme, has been given pride of place here, although as an idea, it evolved during the Pallava rule at, Kanchi, where they reserved the northeast corner for this icon. Themes such as Vishnuanugrahamurti, wherein Vishnu, finding one flower short while offering 1,008, plucks his eye, whereupon Siva immediately bestows his grace or the occasion when Ravana shakes Mt.Kailasha, and Siva, then in the company of Uma, presses down on the mountain with a toe and gets the mighty Ravana to surrender leading to the bestowal of grace, are delineated here.
In another episode, Arjuna mistakes Siva and Uma to be ordinary hunters and gets into an altercation with them when engaged in an arduous penance with the aspiration of being granted a powerful weapon that would make him invincible. Siva bestows the Pasupata on Arjuna when he realises his sin. Rajendra\'s royal atelier was proficient in creating icons of exquisite style, working the hard granite to yield the vision of difficult themes. Umasahita is another theme that is repeatedly reworked at variance with the samhara or ugra concepts found in other royal temples. Not to say that these themes are not enshrined here but they are beautifully subdued among the idiom of benevolence.
Rajendra by matching the scale of building to that of Thanjavur, early into his kingship, made known his political acuity, flexed his economic might and announced to the world that he was an absolute monarch. His son, Rajadhiraja, ascended the throne in this temple, as did subsequent monarchs. However, the paucity of inscriptions on this temple against the massive texts on the Thanjavur temple indicates that this was "a work in progress" for a longer time. Therefore, the kings, including Rajendra, continued to record historical events and important land grants in the old capital. From certain epigraphs pertaining to Gangaikondacholapuram, we gather that some of the land grants were indeed properties transferred from Brihadesvara. The frequent contacts with northern territories and the forging of new personal relationships brought a trace of the Chalukyan influence into the shaping of this temple.
Rajendra gave his daughter, Ammangadevi, in marriage to Rajaraja of the Eastern Chalukyas and it is her son, Rajendra Chola Kulottungan, who ascended the Thanjavur throne on the death of his maternal uncles.
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Can a child ever fill the shoes of a larger-than-life parent? Rajendra Chola came to the throne of Thanjavur on the death of his illustrious father Rajaraja and enlarged his inheritance of a kingdom into an empire. This imperialistic vision was stimulated when Rajendra waged an aggressive campaign, as the commander of an expanding imperial navy and army and brought his father the crowns of Madurai and Ellam.
In return, the now thrice-crowned monarch gave his son the title Maduraikondan after his victorious tour of duty. In time Rajendra became a co-ruler with his father and affirmed his leadership qualities. During the glittering investiture, many vassals and feudatories from the north found it hard to cross the Chalukyan territory to participate in the event. This was a cause enough for the young king to plan an offensive that would be short of an invasion.
On successfully taking the campaign to the north and achieving this objective, Rajendra Chola received the water of the holy Ganga in a golden pot and brought "the waters that Bhagiratha effected to reach earth". He poured the holy water into the reservoir, the Ponneri or Cholagangai, and sanctified it as he did the Simhakenni, the holy well in the precincts of the Gangaikondacholapuram temple. The king gave himself the title Gangaikondan to commemorate this milestone. Thus Rajendra fulfilled some of his ambitions. But the young man had a greater purpose and wanted to best his father, the creator of Brihadesvaram at Thanjavur. He built a temple almost as big and a palace complex larger than the one at Thanjavur with monies from a war chest overflowing from increasingly successful campaigns. Thus came into existence, between1020-29 A.D the grand Imperial Chola temple of Gangaikondacholapuram.
To this day, a visitor has to cross wide open spaces, lush paddy fields and sugarcane groves from which the smell of freshly boiled jaggery wafts through the summer breeze and suddenly, comes upon the horizon, a striking tower reaching up to the heavens. That edifice is the temple dedicated to Siva, where the ethos is one of anugraha or benevolence and seems to be incongruent to the psyche of a warrior-king. I have witnessed the elderly priest reciting the mantra in a sonorous voice full of devotion bathing this massive linga with water and once performing abhisekha with pots of milk brought as an offering to the god by the local people. After the ceremonial bath, he goes about gently wiping the linga with a soft cloth and then drapes with panache a dhoti around the yoni-pita. Continuing to work at making the linga look resplendent, the priest applies sandal paste, kumkum and vibhuti, all the while reciting verses in His praise. All this sets the tone for a satisfying darshana and helps us to understand the visions of its founder, a staunch Sivabhakta.
Rajendra chose to dovetail his devotion to an exceptional Saiva legend of Chandesa, who sacrificed his father when he was interrupted in his worship. Siva showers his grace by symbolically wrapping a garland on the devotee\'s head, in this instance the portrait of the bhakta is supposedly Rajendra, who receives the honour for being the founder of Gangaikondacholapuram and also helps establish the divine right of kingship.
This sculpture which has pride of place at the entrance to the temple has great artistic significance and sets the tenor of representation, i.e. the bhakti and benevolence of Siva. Chandesanugrahamurti, as a theme, has been given pride of place here, although as an idea, it evolved during the Pallava rule at, Kanchi, where they reserved the northeast corner for this icon. Themes such as Vishnuanugrahamurti, wherein Vishnu, finding one flower short while offering 1,008, plucks his eye, whereupon Siva immediately bestows his grace or the occasion when Ravana shakes Mt.Kailasha, and Siva, then in the company of Uma, presses down on the mountain with a toe and gets the mighty Ravana to surrender leading to the bestowal of grace, are delineated here.
In another episode, Arjuna mistakes Siva and Uma to be ordinary hunters and gets into an altercation with them when engaged in an arduous penance with the aspiration of being granted a powerful weapon that would make him invincible. Siva bestows the Pasupata on Arjuna when he realises his sin. Rajendra\'s royal atelier was proficient in creating icons of exquisite style, working the hard granite to yield the vision of difficult themes. Umasahita is another theme that is repeatedly reworked at variance with the samhara or ugra concepts found in other royal temples. Not to say that these themes are not enshrined here but they are beautifully subdued among the idiom of benevolence.
Rajendra by matching the scale of building to that of Thanjavur, early into his kingship, made known his political acuity, flexed his economic might and announced to the world that he was an absolute monarch. His son, Rajadhiraja, ascended the throne in this temple, as did subsequent monarchs. However, the paucity of inscriptions on this temple against the massive texts on the Thanjavur temple indicates that this was "a work in progress" for a longer time. Therefore, the kings, including Rajendra, continued to record historical events and important land grants in the old capital. From certain epigraphs pertaining to Gangaikondacholapuram, we gather that some of the land grants were indeed properties transferred from Brihadesvara. The frequent contacts with northern territories and the forging of new personal relationships brought a trace of the Chalukyan influence into the shaping of this temple.
Rajendra gave his daughter, Ammangadevi, in marriage to Rajaraja of the Eastern Chalukyas and it is her son, Rajendra Chola Kulottungan, who ascended the Thanjavur throne on the death of his maternal uncles.
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Can a child ever fill the shoes of a larger-than-life parent? Rajendra Chola came to the throne of Thanjavur on the death of his illustrious father Rajaraja and enlarged his inheritance of a kingdom into an empire. This imperialistic vision was stimulated when Rajendra waged an aggressive campaign, as the commander of an expanding imperial navy and army and brought his father the crowns of Madurai and Ellam.
In return, the now thrice-crowned monarch gave his son the title Maduraikondan after his victorious tour of duty. In time Rajendra became a co-ruler with his father and affirmed his leadership qualities. During the glittering investiture, many vassals and feudatories from the north found it hard to cross the Chalukyan territory to participate in the event. This was a cause enough for the young king to plan an offensive that would be short of an invasion.
On successfully taking the campaign to the north and achieving this objective, Rajendra Chola received the water of the holy Ganga in a golden pot and brought "the waters that Bhagiratha effected to reach earth". He poured the holy water into the reservoir, the Ponneri or Cholagangai, and sanctified it as he did the Simhakenni, the holy well in the precincts of the Gangaikondacholapuram temple. The king gave himself the title Gangaikondan to commemorate this milestone. Thus Rajendra fulfilled some of his ambitions. But the young man had a greater purpose and wanted to best his father, the creator of Brihadesvaram at Thanjavur. He built a temple almost as big and a palace complex larger than the one at Thanjavur with monies from a war chest overflowing from increasingly successful campaigns. Thus came into existence, between1020-29 A.D the grand Imperial Chola temple of Gangaikondacholapuram.
To this day, a visitor has to cross wide open spaces, lush paddy fields and sugarcane groves from which the smell of freshly boiled jaggery wafts through the summer breeze and suddenly, comes upon the horizon, a striking tower reaching up to the heavens. That edifice is the temple dedicated to Siva, where the ethos is one of anugraha or benevolence and seems to be incongruent to the psyche of a warrior-king. I have witnessed the elderly priest reciting the mantra in a sonorous voice full of devotion bathing this massive linga with water and once performing abhisekha with pots of milk brought as an offering to the god by the local people. After the ceremonial bath, he goes about gently wiping the linga with a soft cloth and then drapes with panache a dhoti around the yoni-pita. Continuing to work at making the linga look resplendent, the priest applies sandal paste, kumkum and vibhuti, all the while reciting verses in His praise. All this sets the tone for a satisfying darshana and helps us to understand the visions of its founder, a staunch Sivabhakta.
Rajendra chose to dovetail his devotion to an exceptional Saiva legend of Chandesa, who sacrificed his father when he was interrupted in his worship. Siva showers his grace by symbolically wrapping a garland on the devotee\'s head, in this instance the portrait of the bhakta is supposedly Rajendra, who receives the honour for being the founder of Gangaikondacholapuram and also helps establish the divine right of kingship.
This sculpture which has pride of place at the entrance to the temple has great artistic significance and sets the tenor of representation, i.e. the bhakti and benevolence of Siva. Chandesanugrahamurti, as a theme, has been given pride of place here, although as an idea, it evolved during the Pallava rule at, Kanchi, where they reserved the northeast corner for this icon. Themes such as Vishnuanugrahamurti, wherein Vishnu, finding one flower short while offering 1,008, plucks his eye, whereupon Siva immediately bestows his grace or the occasion when Ravana shakes Mt.Kailasha, and Siva, then in the company of Uma, presses down on the mountain with a toe and gets the mighty Ravana to surrender leading to the bestowal of grace, are delineated here.
In another episode, Arjuna mistakes Siva and Uma to be ordinary hunters and gets into an altercation with them when engaged in an arduous penance with the aspiration of being granted a powerful weapon that would make him invincible. Siva bestows the Pasupata on Arjuna when he realises his sin. Rajendra\'s royal atelier was proficient in creating icons of exquisite style, working the hard granite to yield the vision of difficult themes. Umasahita is another theme that is repeatedly reworked at variance with the samhara or ugra concepts found in other royal temples. Not to say that these themes are not enshrined here but they are beautifully subdued among the idiom of benevolence.
Rajendra by matching the scale of building to that of Thanjavur, early into his kingship, made known his political acuity, flexed his economic might and announced to the world that he was an absolute monarch. His son, Rajadhiraja, ascended the throne in this temple, as did subsequent monarchs. However, the paucity of inscriptions on this temple against the massive texts on the Thanjavur temple indicates that this was "a work in progress" for a longer time. Therefore, the kings, including Rajendra, continued to record historical events and important land grants in the old capital. From certain epigraphs pertaining to Gangaikondacholapuram, we gather that some of the land grants were indeed properties transferred from Brihadesvara. The frequent contacts with northern territories and the forging of new personal relationships brought a trace of the Chalukyan influence into the shaping of this temple.
Rajendra gave his daughter, Ammangadevi, in marriage to Rajaraja of the Eastern Chalukyas and it is her son, Rajendra Chola Kulottungan, who ascended the Thanjavur throne on the death of his maternal uncles.
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Can a child ever fill the shoes of a larger-than-life parent? Rajendra Chola came to the throne of Thanjavur on the death of his illustrious father Rajaraja and enlarged his inheritance of a kingdom into an empire. This imperialistic vision was stimulated when Rajendra waged an aggressive campaign, as the commander of an expanding imperial navy and army and brought his father the crowns of Madurai and Ellam.
In return, the now thrice-crowned monarch gave his son the title Maduraikondan after his victorious tour of duty. In time Rajendra became a co-ruler with his father and affirmed his leadership qualities. During the glittering investiture, many vassals and feudatories from the north found it hard to cross the Chalukyan territory to participate in the event. This was a cause enough for the young king to plan an offensive that would be short of an invasion.
On successfully taking the campaign to the north and achieving this objective, Rajendra Chola received the water of the holy Ganga in a golden pot and brought "the waters that Bhagiratha effected to reach earth". He poured the holy water into the reservoir, the Ponneri or Cholagangai, and sanctified it as he did the Simhakenni, the holy well in the precincts of the Gangaikondacholapuram temple. The king gave himself the title Gangaikondan to commemorate this milestone. Thus Rajendra fulfilled some of his ambitions. But the young man had a greater purpose and wanted to best his father, the creator of Brihadesvaram at Thanjavur. He built a temple almost as big and a palace complex larger than the one at Thanjavur with monies from a war chest overflowing from increasingly successful campaigns. Thus came into existence, between1020-29 A.D the grand Imperial Chola temple of Gangaikondacholapuram.
To this day, a visitor has to cross wide open spaces, lush paddy fields and sugarcane groves from which the smell of freshly boiled jaggery wafts through the summer breeze and suddenly, comes upon the horizon, a striking tower reaching up to the heavens. That edifice is the temple dedicated to Siva, where the ethos is one of anugraha or benevolence and seems to be incongruent to the psyche of a warrior-king. I have witnessed the elderly priest reciting the mantra in a sonorous voice full of devotion bathing this massive linga with water and once performing abhisekha with pots of milk brought as an offering to the god by the local people. After the ceremonial bath, he goes about gently wiping the linga with a soft cloth and then drapes with panache a dhoti around the yoni-pita. Continuing to work at making the linga look resplendent, the priest applies sandal paste, kumkum and vibhuti, all the while reciting verses in His praise. All this sets the tone for a satisfying darshana and helps us to understand the visions of its founder, a staunch Sivabhakta.
Rajendra chose to dovetail his devotion to an exceptional Saiva legend of Chandesa, who sacrificed his father when he was interrupted in his worship. Siva showers his grace by symbolically wrapping a garland on the devotee\'s head, in this instance the portrait of the bhakta is supposedly Rajendra, who receives the honour for being the founder of Gangaikondacholapuram and also helps establish the divine right of kingship.
This sculpture which has pride of place at the entrance to the temple has great artistic significance and sets the tenor of representation, i.e. the bhakti and benevolence of Siva. Chandesanugrahamurti, as a theme, has been given pride of place here, although as an idea, it evolved during the Pallava rule at, Kanchi, where they reserved the northeast corner for this icon. Themes such as Vishnuanugrahamurti, wherein Vishnu, finding one flower short while offering 1,008, plucks his eye, whereupon Siva immediately bestows his grace or the occasion when Ravana shakes Mt.Kailasha, and Siva, then in the company of Uma, presses down on the mountain with a toe and gets the mighty Ravana to surrender leading to the bestowal of grace, are delineated here.
In another episode, Arjuna mistakes Siva and Uma to be ordinary hunters and gets into an altercation with them when engaged in an arduous penance with the aspiration of being granted a powerful weapon that would make him invincible. Siva bestows the Pasupata on Arjuna when he realises his sin. Rajendra\'s royal atelier was proficient in creating icons of exquisite style, working the hard granite to yield the vision of difficult themes. Umasahita is another theme that is repeatedly reworked at variance with the samhara or ugra concepts found in other royal temples. Not to say that these themes are not enshrined here but they are beautifully subdued among the idiom of benevolence.
Rajendra by matching the scale of building to that of Thanjavur, early into his kingship, made known his political acuity, flexed his economic might and announced to the world that he was an absolute monarch. His son, Rajadhiraja, ascended the throne in this temple, as did subsequent monarchs. However, the paucity of inscriptions on this temple against the massive texts on the Thanjavur temple indicates that this was "a work in progress" for a longer time. Therefore, the kings, including Rajendra, continued to record historical events and important land grants in the old capital. From certain epigraphs pertaining to Gangaikondacholapuram, we gather that some of the land grants were indeed properties transferred from Brihadesvara. The frequent contacts with northern territories and the forging of new personal relationships brought a trace of the Chalukyan influence into the shaping of this temple.
Rajendra gave his daughter, Ammangadevi, in marriage to Rajaraja of the Eastern Chalukyas and it is her son, Rajendra Chola Kulottungan, who ascended the Thanjavur throne on the death of his maternal uncles.
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Sixty years ago, on the evening of August 14, 1947, a few hours before Britain’s Indian Empire was formally divided into the nation-states of India and Pakistan, Lord Louis Mountbatten and his wife, Edwina, sat down in the viceregal mansion in New Delhi to watch the latest Bob Hope movie, “My Favorite Brunette.” Large parts of the subcontinent were descending into chaos, as the implications of partitioning the Indian Empire along religious lines became clear to the millions of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs caught on the wrong side of the border. In the next few months, some twelve million people would be uprooted and as many as a million murdered. But on that night in mid-August the bloodbath—and the fuller consequences of hasty imperial retreat—still lay in the future, and the Mountbattens probably felt they had earned their evening’s entertainment.Mountbatten, the last viceroy of India, had arrived in New Delhi in March, 1947, charged with an almost impossible task. Irrevocably enfeebled by the Second World War, the British belatedly realized that they had to leave the subcontinent, which had spiralled out of their control through the nineteen-forties. But plans for brisk disengagement ignored messy realities on the ground. Mountbatten had a clear remit to transfer power to the Indians within fifteen months. Leaving India to God, or anarchy, as Mohandas Gandhi, the foremost Indian leader, exhorted, wasn’t a political option, however tempting. Mountbatten had to work hard to figure out how and to whom power was to be transferred.The dominant political party, the Congress Party, took inspiration from Gandhi in claiming to be a secular organization, representing all four hundred million Indians. But many Muslim politicians saw it as a party of upper-caste Hindus and demanded a separate homeland for their hundred million co-religionists, who were intermingled with non-Muslim populations across the subcontinent’s villages, towns, and cities. Eventually, as in Palestine, the British saw partition along religious lines as the quickest way to the exit.But sectarian riots in Punjab and Bengal dimmed hopes for a quick and dignified British withdrawal, and boded ill for India’s assumption of power. Not surprisingly, there were some notable absences at the Independence Day celebrations in New Delhi on August 15th. Gandhi, denouncing freedom from imperial rule as a “wooden loaf,” had remained in Calcutta, trying, with the force of his moral authority, to stop Hindus and Muslims from killing each other. His great rival Mohammed Ali Jinnah, who had fought bitterly for a separate homeland for Indian Muslims, was in Karachi, trying to hold together the precarious nation-state of Pakistan.Nevertheless, the significance of the occasion was not lost on many. While the Mountbattens were sitting down to their Bob Hope movie, India’s constituent assembly was convening in New Delhi. The moment demanded grandiloquence, and Jawaharlal Nehru, Gandhi’s closest disciple and soon to be India’s first Prime Minister, provided it. “Long years ago, we made a tryst with destiny,” he said. “At the stroke of the midnight hour, while the world sleeps, India will awaken to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance.”Posterity has enshrined this speech, as Nehru clearly intended. But today his quaint phrase “tryst with destiny” resonates ominously, so enduring have been the political and psychological scars of partition. The souls of the two new nation-states immediately found utterance in brutal enmity. In Punjab, armed vigilante groups, organized along religious lines and incited by local politicians, murdered countless people, abducting and raping thousands of women. Soon, India and Pakistan were fighting a war—the first of three—over the disputed territory of Kashmir. Gandhi, reduced to despair by the seemingly endless cycle of retaliatory mass murders and displacement, was shot dead in January, 1948, by a Hindu extremist who believed that the father of the Indian nation was too soft on Muslims. Jinnah, racked with tuberculosis and overwork, died a few months later, his dream of a secular Pakistan apparently buried with him.Many of the seeds of postcolonial disorder in South Asia were sown much earlier, in two centuries of direct and indirect British rule, but, as book after book has demonstrated, nothing in the complex tragedy of partition was inevitable. In “Indian Summer” (Henry Holt; $30), Alex von Tunzelmann pays particular attention to how negotiations were shaped by an interplay of personalities. Von Tunzelmann goes on a bit too much about the Mountbattens’ open marriage and their connections to various British royals, toffs, and fops, but her account, unlike those of some of her fellow British historians, isn’t filtered by nostalgia. She summarizes bluntly the economic record of the British overlords, who, though never as rapacious and destructive as the Belgians in the Congo, damaged agriculture and retarded industrial growth in India through a blind faith in the “invisible hand” that supposedly regulated markets. Von Tunzelmann echoes Edmund Burke’s denunciation of the East India Company when she terms the empire’s corporate forerunner a “beast” whose “only object was money”; and she reminds readers that, in 1877, the year that Queen Victoria officially became Empress of India, a famine in the south killed five million people even as the Queen’s viceroy remained adamant that famine relief was a misguided policy.Politically, too, British rule in India was deeply conservative, limiting Indian access to higher education, industry, and the civil service. Writing in the New York Tribune in the mid-nineteenth century, Karl Marx predicted that British colonials would prove to be the “unconscious tool” of a “social revolution” in a subcontinent stagnating under “Oriental despotism.” As it turned out, the British, while restricting an educated middle class, empowered a multitude of petty Oriental despots. (In 1947, there were five hundred and sixty-five of these feudatories, often called maharajas, running states as large as Belgium and as small as Central Park.)
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Sixty years ago, on the evening of August 14, 1947, a few hours before Britain’s Indian Empire was formally divided into the nation-states of India and Pakistan, Lord Louis Mountbatten and his wife, Edwina, sat down in the viceregal mansion in New Delhi to watch the latest Bob Hope movie, “My Favorite Brunette.” Large parts of the subcontinent were descending into chaos, as the implications of partitioning the Indian Empire along religious lines became clear to the millions of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs caught on the wrong side of the border. In the next few months, some twelve million people would be uprooted and as many as a million murdered. But on that night in mid-August the bloodbath—and the fuller consequences of hasty imperial retreat—still lay in the future, and the Mountbattens probably felt they had earned their evening’s entertainment.Mountbatten, the last viceroy of India, had arrived in New Delhi in March, 1947, charged with an almost impossible task. Irrevocably enfeebled by the Second World War, the British belatedly realized that they had to leave the subcontinent, which had spiralled out of their control through the nineteen-forties. But plans for brisk disengagement ignored messy realities on the ground. Mountbatten had a clear remit to transfer power to the Indians within fifteen months. Leaving India to God, or anarchy, as Mohandas Gandhi, the foremost Indian leader, exhorted, wasn’t a political option, however tempting. Mountbatten had to work hard to figure out how and to whom power was to be transferred.The dominant political party, the Congress Party, took inspiration from Gandhi in claiming to be a secular organization, representing all four hundred million Indians. But many Muslim politicians saw it as a party of upper-caste Hindus and demanded a separate homeland for their hundred million co-religionists, who were intermingled with non-Muslim populations across the subcontinent’s villages, towns, and cities. Eventually, as in Palestine, the British saw partition along religious lines as the quickest way to the exit.But sectarian riots in Punjab and Bengal dimmed hopes for a quick and dignified British withdrawal, and boded ill for India’s assumption of power. Not surprisingly, there were some notable absences at the Independence Day celebrations in New Delhi on August 15th. Gandhi, denouncing freedom from imperial rule as a “wooden loaf,” had remained in Calcutta, trying, with the force of his moral authority, to stop Hindus and Muslims from killing each other. His great rival Mohammed Ali Jinnah, who had fought bitterly for a separate homeland for Indian Muslims, was in Karachi, trying to hold together the precarious nation-state of Pakistan.Nevertheless, the significance of the occasion was not lost on many. While the Mountbattens were sitting down to their Bob Hope movie, India’s constituent assembly was convening in New Delhi. The moment demanded grandiloquence, and Jawaharlal Nehru, Gandhi’s closest disciple and soon to be India’s first Prime Minister, provided it. “Long years ago, we made a tryst with destiny,” he said. “At the stroke of the midnight hour, while the world sleeps, India will awaken to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance.”Posterity has enshrined this speech, as Nehru clearly intended. But today his quaint phrase “tryst with destiny” resonates ominously, so enduring have been the political and psychological scars of partition. The souls of the two new nation-states immediately found utterance in brutal enmity. In Punjab, armed vigilante groups, organized along religious lines and incited by local politicians, murdered countless people, abducting and raping thousands of women. Soon, India and Pakistan were fighting a war—the first of three—over the disputed territory of Kashmir. Gandhi, reduced to despair by the seemingly endless cycle of retaliatory mass murders and displacement, was shot dead in January, 1948, by a Hindu extremist who believed that the father of the Indian nation was too soft on Muslims. Jinnah, racked with tuberculosis and overwork, died a few months later, his dream of a secular Pakistan apparently buried with him.Many of the seeds of postcolonial disorder in South Asia were sown much earlier, in two centuries of direct and indirect British rule, but, as book after book has demonstrated, nothing in the complex tragedy of partition was inevitable. In “Indian Summer” (Henry Holt; $30), Alex von Tunzelmann pays particular attention to how negotiations were shaped by an interplay of personalities. Von Tunzelmann goes on a bit too much about the Mountbattens’ open marriage and their connections to various British royals, toffs, and fops, but her account, unlike those of some of her fellow British historians, isn’t filtered by nostalgia. She summarizes bluntly the economic record of the British overlords, who, though never as rapacious and destructive as the Belgians in the Congo, damaged agriculture and retarded industrial growth in India through a blind faith in the “invisible hand” that supposedly regulated markets. Von Tunzelmann echoes Edmund Burke’s denunciation of the East India Company when she terms the empire’s corporate forerunner a “beast” whose “only object was money”; and she reminds readers that, in 1877, the year that Queen Victoria officially became Empress of India, a famine in the south killed five million people even as the Queen’s viceroy remained adamant that famine relief was a misguided policy.Politically, too, British rule in India was deeply conservative, limiting Indian access to higher education, industry, and the civil service. Writing in the New York Tribune in the mid-nineteenth century, Karl Marx predicted that British colonials would prove to be the “unconscious tool” of a “social revolution” in a subcontinent stagnating under “Oriental despotism.” As it turned out, the British, while restricting an educated middle class, empowered a multitude of petty Oriental despots. (In 1947, there were five hundred and sixty-five of these feudatories, often called maharajas, running states as large as Belgium and as small as Central Park.)
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Sixty years ago, on the evening of August 14, 1947, a few hours before Britain’s Indian Empire was formally divided into the nation-states of India and Pakistan, Lord Louis Mountbatten and his wife, Edwina, sat down in the viceregal mansion in New Delhi to watch the latest Bob Hope movie, “My Favorite Brunette.” Large parts of the subcontinent were descending into chaos, as the implications of partitioning the Indian Empire along religious lines became clear to the millions of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs caught on the wrong side of the border. In the next few months, some twelve million people would be uprooted and as many as a million murdered. But on that night in mid-August the bloodbath—and the fuller consequences of hasty imperial retreat—still lay in the future, and the Mountbattens probably felt they had earned their evening’s entertainment.Mountbatten, the last viceroy of India, had arrived in New Delhi in March, 1947, charged with an almost impossible task. Irrevocably enfeebled by the Second World War, the British belatedly realized that they had to leave the subcontinent, which had spiralled out of their control through the nineteen-forties. But plans for brisk disengagement ignored messy realities on the ground. Mountbatten had a clear remit to transfer power to the Indians within fifteen months. Leaving India to God, or anarchy, as Mohandas Gandhi, the foremost Indian leader, exhorted, wasn’t a political option, however tempting. Mountbatten had to work hard to figure out how and to whom power was to be transferred.The dominant political party, the Congress Party, took inspiration from Gandhi in claiming to be a secular organization, representing all four hundred million Indians. But many Muslim politicians saw it as a party of upper-caste Hindus and demanded a separate homeland for their hundred million co-religionists, who were intermingled with non-Muslim populations across the subcontinent’s villages, towns, and cities. Eventually, as in Palestine, the British saw partition along religious lines as the quickest way to the exit.But sectarian riots in Punjab and Bengal dimmed hopes for a quick and dignified British withdrawal, and boded ill for India’s assumption of power. Not surprisingly, there were some notable absences at the Independence Day celebrations in New Delhi on August 15th. Gandhi, denouncing freedom from imperial rule as a “wooden loaf,” had remained in Calcutta, trying, with the force of his moral authority, to stop Hindus and Muslims from killing each other. His great rival Mohammed Ali Jinnah, who had fought bitterly for a separate homeland for Indian Muslims, was in Karachi, trying to hold together the precarious nation-state of Pakistan.Nevertheless, the significance of the occasion was not lost on many. While the Mountbattens were sitting down to their Bob Hope movie, India’s constituent assembly was convening in New Delhi. The moment demanded grandiloquence, and Jawaharlal Nehru, Gandhi’s closest disciple and soon to be India’s first Prime Minister, provided it. “Long years ago, we made a tryst with destiny,” he said. “At the stroke of the midnight hour, while the world sleeps, India will awaken to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance.”Posterity has enshrined this speech, as Nehru clearly intended. But today his quaint phrase “tryst with destiny” resonates ominously, so enduring have been the political and psychological scars of partition. The souls of the two new nation-states immediately found utterance in brutal enmity. In Punjab, armed vigilante groups, organized along religious lines and incited by local politicians, murdered countless people, abducting and raping thousands of women. Soon, India and Pakistan were fighting a war—the first of three—over the disputed territory of Kashmir. Gandhi, reduced to despair by the seemingly endless cycle of retaliatory mass murders and displacement, was shot dead in January, 1948, by a Hindu extremist who believed that the father of the Indian nation was too soft on Muslims. Jinnah, racked with tuberculosis and overwork, died a few months later, his dream of a secular Pakistan apparently buried with him.Many of the seeds of postcolonial disorder in South Asia were sown much earlier, in two centuries of direct and indirect British rule, but, as book after book has demonstrated, nothing in the complex tragedy of partition was inevitable. In “Indian Summer” (Henry Holt; $30), Alex von Tunzelmann pays particular attention to how negotiations were shaped by an interplay of personalities. Von Tunzelmann goes on a bit too much about the Mountbattens’ open marriage and their connections to various British royals, toffs, and fops, but her account, unlike those of some of her fellow British historians, isn’t filtered by nostalgia. She summarizes bluntly the economic record of the British overlords, who, though never as rapacious and destructive as the Belgians in the Congo, damaged agriculture and retarded industrial growth in India through a blind faith in the “invisible hand” that supposedly regulated markets. Von Tunzelmann echoes Edmund Burke’s denunciation of the East India Company when she terms the empire’s corporate forerunner a “beast” whose “only object was money”; and she reminds readers that, in 1877, the year that Queen Victoria officially became Empress of India, a famine in the south killed five million people even as the Queen’s viceroy remained adamant that famine relief was a misguided policy.Politically, too, British rule in India was deeply conservative, limiting Indian access to higher education, industry, and the civil service. Writing in the New York Tribune in the mid-nineteenth century, Karl Marx predicted that British colonials would prove to be the “unconscious tool” of a “social revolution” in a subcontinent stagnating under “Oriental despotism.” As it turned out, the British, while restricting an educated middle class, empowered a multitude of petty Oriental despots. (In 1947, there were five hundred and sixty-five of these feudatories, often called maharajas, running states as large as Belgium and as small as Central Park.)
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Sixty years ago, on the evening of August 14, 1947, a few hours before Britain’s Indian Empire was formally divided into the nation-states of India and Pakistan, Lord Louis Mountbatten and his wife, Edwina, sat down in the viceregal mansion in New Delhi to watch the latest Bob Hope movie, “My Favorite Brunette.” Large parts of the subcontinent were descending into chaos, as the implications of partitioning the Indian Empire along religious lines became clear to the millions of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs caught on the wrong side of the border. In the next few months, some twelve million people would be uprooted and as many as a million murdered. But on that night in mid-August the bloodbath—and the fuller consequences of hasty imperial retreat—still lay in the future, and the Mountbattens probably felt they had earned their evening’s entertainment.Mountbatten, the last viceroy of India, had arrived in New Delhi in March, 1947, charged with an almost impossible task. Irrevocably enfeebled by the Second World War, the British belatedly realized that they had to leave the subcontinent, which had spiralled out of their control through the nineteen-forties. But plans for brisk disengagement ignored messy realities on the ground. Mountbatten had a clear remit to transfer power to the Indians within fifteen months. Leaving India to God, or anarchy, as Mohandas Gandhi, the foremost Indian leader, exhorted, wasn’t a political option, however tempting. Mountbatten had to work hard to figure out how and to whom power was to be transferred.The dominant political party, the Congress Party, took inspiration from Gandhi in claiming to be a secular organization, representing all four hundred million Indians. But many Muslim politicians saw it as a party of upper-caste Hindus and demanded a separate homeland for their hundred million co-religionists, who were intermingled with non-Muslim populations across the subcontinent’s villages, towns, and cities. Eventually, as in Palestine, the British saw partition along religious lines as the quickest way to the exit.But sectarian riots in Punjab and Bengal dimmed hopes for a quick and dignified British withdrawal, and boded ill for India’s assumption of power. Not surprisingly, there were some notable absences at the Independence Day celebrations in New Delhi on August 15th. Gandhi, denouncing freedom from imperial rule as a “wooden loaf,” had remained in Calcutta, trying, with the force of his moral authority, to stop Hindus and Muslims from killing each other. His great rival Mohammed Ali Jinnah, who had fought bitterly for a separate homeland for Indian Muslims, was in Karachi, trying to hold together the precarious nation-state of Pakistan.Nevertheless, the significance of the occasion was not lost on many. While the Mountbattens were sitting down to their Bob Hope movie, India’s constituent assembly was convening in New Delhi. The moment demanded grandiloquence, and Jawaharlal Nehru, Gandhi’s closest disciple and soon to be India’s first Prime Minister, provided it. “Long years ago, we made a tryst with destiny,” he said. “At the stroke of the midnight hour, while the world sleeps, India will awaken to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance.”Posterity has enshrined this speech, as Nehru clearly intended. But today his quaint phrase “tryst with destiny” resonates ominously, so enduring have been the political and psychological scars of partition. The souls of the two new nation-states immediately found utterance in brutal enmity. In Punjab, armed vigilante groups, organized along religious lines and incited by local politicians, murdered countless people, abducting and raping thousands of women. Soon, India and Pakistan were fighting a war—the first of three—over the disputed territory of Kashmir. Gandhi, reduced to despair by the seemingly endless cycle of retaliatory mass murders and displacement, was shot dead in January, 1948, by a Hindu extremist who believed that the father of the Indian nation was too soft on Muslims. Jinnah, racked with tuberculosis and overwork, died a few months later, his dream of a secular Pakistan apparently buried with him.Many of the seeds of postcolonial disorder in South Asia were sown much earlier, in two centuries of direct and indirect British rule, but, as book after book has demonstrated, nothing in the complex tragedy of partition was inevitable. In “Indian Summer” (Henry Holt; $30), Alex von Tunzelmann pays particular attention to how negotiations were shaped by an interplay of personalities. 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Sixty years ago, on the evening of August 14, 1947, a few hours before Britain’s Indian Empire was formally divided into the nation-states of India and Pakistan, Lord Louis Mountbatten and his wife, Edwina, sat down in the viceregal mansion in New Delhi to watch the latest Bob Hope movie, “My Favorite Brunette.” Large parts of the subcontinent were descending into chaos, as the implications of partitioning the Indian Empire along religious lines became clear to the millions of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs caught on the wrong side of the border. In the next few months, some twelve million people would be uprooted and as many as a million murdered. But on that night in mid-August the bloodbath—and the fuller consequences of hasty imperial retreat—still lay in the future, and the Mountbattens probably felt they had earned their evening’s entertainment.Mountbatten, the last viceroy of India, had arrived in New Delhi in March, 1947, charged with an almost impossible task. Irrevocably enfeebled by the Second World War, the British belatedly realized that they had to leave the subcontinent, which had spiralled out of their control through the nineteen-forties. But plans for brisk disengagement ignored messy realities on the ground. Mountbatten had a clear remit to transfer power to the Indians within fifteen months. Leaving India to God, or anarchy, as Mohandas Gandhi, the foremost Indian leader, exhorted, wasn’t a political option, however tempting. Mountbatten had to work hard to figure out how and to whom power was to be transferred.The dominant political party, the Congress Party, took inspiration from Gandhi in claiming to be a secular organization, representing all four hundred million Indians. But many Muslim politicians saw it as a party of upper-caste Hindus and demanded a separate homeland for their hundred million co-religionists, who were intermingled with non-Muslim populations across the subcontinent’s villages, towns, and cities. Eventually, as in Palestine, the British saw partition along religious lines as the quickest way to the exit.But sectarian riots in Punjab and Bengal dimmed hopes for a quick and dignified British withdrawal, and boded ill for India’s assumption of power. Not surprisingly, there were some notable absences at the Independence Day celebrations in New Delhi on August 15th. Gandhi, denouncing freedom from imperial rule as a “wooden loaf,” had remained in Calcutta, trying, with the force of his moral authority, to stop Hindus and Muslims from killing each other. His great rival Mohammed Ali Jinnah, who had fought bitterly for a separate homeland for Indian Muslims, was in Karachi, trying to hold together the precarious nation-state of Pakistan.Nevertheless, the significance of the occasion was not lost on many. While the Mountbattens were sitting down to their Bob Hope movie, India’s constituent assembly was convening in New Delhi. The moment demanded grandiloquence, and Jawaharlal Nehru, Gandhi’s closest disciple and soon to be India’s first Prime Minister, provided it. “Long years ago, we made a tryst with destiny,” he said. “At the stroke of the midnight hour, while the world sleeps, India will awaken to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance.”Posterity has enshrined this speech, as Nehru clearly intended. But today his quaint phrase “tryst with destiny” resonates ominously, so enduring have been the political and psychological scars of partition. The souls of the two new nation-states immediately found utterance in brutal enmity. In Punjab, armed vigilante groups, organized along religious lines and incited by local politicians, murdered countless people, abducting and raping thousands of women. Soon, India and Pakistan were fighting a war—the first of three—over the disputed territory of Kashmir. Gandhi, reduced to despair by the seemingly endless cycle of retaliatory mass murders and displacement, was shot dead in January, 1948, by a Hindu extremist who believed that the father of the Indian nation was too soft on Muslims. Jinnah, racked with tuberculosis and overwork, died a few months later, his dream of a secular Pakistan apparently buried with him.Many of the seeds of postcolonial disorder in South Asia were sown much earlier, in two centuries of direct and indirect British rule, but, as book after book has demonstrated, nothing in the complex tragedy of partition was inevitable. In “Indian Summer” (Henry Holt; $30), Alex von Tunzelmann pays particular attention to how negotiations were shaped by an interplay of personalities. Von Tunzelmann goes on a bit too much about the Mountbattens’ open marriage and their connections to various British royals, toffs, and fops, but her account, unlike those of some of her fellow British historians, isn’t filtered by nostalgia. She summarizes bluntly the economic record of the British overlords, who, though never as rapacious and destructive as the Belgians in the Congo, damaged agriculture and retarded industrial growth in India through a blind faith in the “invisible hand” that supposedly regulated markets. Von Tunzelmann echoes Edmund Burke’s denunciation of the East India Company when she terms the empire’s corporate forerunner a “beast” whose “only object was money”; and she reminds readers that, in 1877, the year that Queen Victoria officially became Empress of India, a famine in the south killed five million people even as the Queen’s viceroy remained adamant that famine relief was a misguided policy.Politically, too, British rule in India was deeply conservative, limiting Indian access to higher education, industry, and the civil service. Writing in the New York Tribune in the mid-nineteenth century, Karl Marx predicted that British colonials would prove to be the “unconscious tool” of a “social revolution” in a subcontinent stagnating under “Oriental despotism.” As it turned out, the British, while restricting an educated middle class, empowered a multitude of petty Oriental despots. (In 1947, there were five hundred and sixty-five of these feudatories, often called maharajas, running states as large as Belgium and as small as Central Park.)
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Sixty years ago, on the evening of August 14, 1947, a few hours before Britain’s Indian Empire was formally divided into the nation-states of India and Pakistan, Lord Louis Mountbatten and his wife, Edwina, sat down in the viceregal mansion in New Delhi to watch the latest Bob Hope movie, “My Favorite Brunette.” Large parts of the subcontinent were descending into chaos, as the implications of partitioning the Indian Empire along religious lines became clear to the millions of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs caught on the wrong side of the border. In the next few months, some twelve million people would be uprooted and as many as a million murdered. But on that night in mid-August the bloodbath—and the fuller consequences of hasty imperial retreat—still lay in the future, and the Mountbattens probably felt they had earned their evening’s entertainment.Mountbatten, the last viceroy of India, had arrived in New Delhi in March, 1947, charged with an almost impossible task. Irrevocably enfeebled by the Second World War, the British belatedly realized that they had to leave the subcontinent, which had spiralled out of their control through the nineteen-forties. But plans for brisk disengagement ignored messy realities on the ground. Mountbatten had a clear remit to transfer power to the Indians within fifteen months. Leaving India to God, or anarchy, as Mohandas Gandhi, the foremost Indian leader, exhorted, wasn’t a political option, however tempting. Mountbatten had to work hard to figure out how and to whom power was to be transferred.The dominant political party, the Congress Party, took inspiration from Gandhi in claiming to be a secular organization, representing all four hundred million Indians. But many Muslim politicians saw it as a party of upper-caste Hindus and demanded a separate homeland for their hundred million co-religionists, who were intermingled with non-Muslim populations across the subcontinent’s villages, towns, and cities. Eventually, as in Palestine, the British saw partition along religious lines as the quickest way to the exit.But sectarian riots in Punjab and Bengal dimmed hopes for a quick and dignified British withdrawal, and boded ill for India’s assumption of power. Not surprisingly, there were some notable absences at the Independence Day celebrations in New Delhi on August 15th. Gandhi, denouncing freedom from imperial rule as a “wooden loaf,” had remained in Calcutta, trying, with the force of his moral authority, to stop Hindus and Muslims from killing each other. His great rival Mohammed Ali Jinnah, who had fought bitterly for a separate homeland for Indian Muslims, was in Karachi, trying to hold together the precarious nation-state of Pakistan.Nevertheless, the significance of the occasion was not lost on many. While the Mountbattens were sitting down to their Bob Hope movie, India’s constituent assembly was convening in New Delhi. The moment demanded grandiloquence, and Jawaharlal Nehru, Gandhi’s closest disciple and soon to be India’s first Prime Minister, provided it. “Long years ago, we made a tryst with destiny,” he said. “At the stroke of the midnight hour, while the world sleeps, India will awaken to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance.”Posterity has enshrined this speech, as Nehru clearly intended. But today his quaint phrase “tryst with destiny” resonates ominously, so enduring have been the political and psychological scars of partition. The souls of the two new nation-states immediately found utterance in brutal enmity. In Punjab, armed vigilante groups, organized along religious lines and incited by local politicians, murdered countless people, abducting and raping thousands of women. Soon, India and Pakistan were fighting a war—the first of three—over the disputed territory of Kashmir. Gandhi, reduced to despair by the seemingly endless cycle of retaliatory mass murders and displacement, was shot dead in January, 1948, by a Hindu extremist who believed that the father of the Indian nation was too soft on Muslims. Jinnah, racked with tuberculosis and overwork, died a few months later, his dream of a secular Pakistan apparently buried with him.Many of the seeds of postcolonial disorder in South Asia were sown much earlier, in two centuries of direct and indirect British rule, but, as book after book has demonstrated, nothing in the complex tragedy of partition was inevitable. In “Indian Summer” (Henry Holt; $30), Alex von Tunzelmann pays particular attention to how negotiations were shaped by an interplay of personalities. Von Tunzelmann goes on a bit too much about the Mountbattens’ open marriage and their connections to various British royals, toffs, and fops, but her account, unlike those of some of her fellow British historians, isn’t filtered by nostalgia. She summarizes bluntly the economic record of the British overlords, who, though never as rapacious and destructive as the Belgians in the Congo, damaged agriculture and retarded industrial growth in India through a blind faith in the “invisible hand” that supposedly regulated markets. Von Tunzelmann echoes Edmund Burke’s denunciation of the East India Company when she terms the empire’s corporate forerunner a “beast” whose “only object was money”; and she reminds readers that, in 1877, the year that Queen Victoria officially became Empress of India, a famine in the south killed five million people even as the Queen’s viceroy remained adamant that famine relief was a misguided policy.Politically, too, British rule in India was deeply conservative, limiting Indian access to higher education, industry, and the civil service. Writing in the New York Tribune in the mid-nineteenth century, Karl Marx predicted that British colonials would prove to be the “unconscious tool” of a “social revolution” in a subcontinent stagnating under “Oriental despotism.” As it turned out, the British, while restricting an educated middle class, empowered a multitude of petty Oriental despots. (In 1947, there were five hundred and sixty-five of these feudatories, often called maharajas, running states as large as Belgium and as small as Central Park.)
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Musical preferences are as diverse as the people who listen to them. Different types of music have different reputations. Heavy metal music is often labelled as "negative". Yet others find it a harmless form of music like other types of music, such as jazz, blues, and even rap. The distinct style of heavy metal music can be grouped into three main sections. One popular style of heavy metal is death metal. Death metal has a more dark sound and eerie style than other forms of heavy metal. The music itself is fast, heavy, and loud. The images that death metal portrays are death, doom, destruction, suicide, sex, and drugs. Some see these images as harmful or having a negative effect on the listener. Another form of heavy metal music is speed metal. Speed metal has a more upbeat sound than death metal and is not as depressing as death metal. It is fast-paced and has a hard impact. The lead guitar follows a frenetic pace. This is in contrast to death metal which emphasizes rhythm guitar. The last type of heavy metal music is thrash metal. The name refers to both the thrashing sound of the music and the flailing movement of its listeners. The sound is very loud and has the same tone and style of speed metal. These styles, however, attract certain people.
The majority of people who listen to heavy metal music are suburban white males. These males range in ages between 14 and 24. They have a certain style of dress and way of life. They wear dark clothing with morbid images of death and destruction. This clothing can be seen to be a costume that advertises the teens\' musical preferences. It is a way of getting attention. Surprisingly, even though the crowds tend to be young, adults are also seen at these concerts. One example of an adult and a parent is Dave Mullins. He likes to take his sons to see death metal shows. Mullins says about death metal, "I did see one band that had a clear bag with a fetus inside it. It looked gross, but it was just a gag. When I\'m watching the kids, they\'re just letting off steam. When I was a kid, we used to beat people up after school. This seems better to me." Of course, not all parents agree with Mullins.
Parents want the best for their children, but sometimes their efforts are not beneficial. When parents nag their children about what they should and should not listen to, kids can become angry and depressed. This possibly can lead to drinking and drug use, and suicide. Parents can blame this behaviour on the music that their kids are listening to. A group of parents formed the Parent Music Resource Center in the \'80s. Even the vice-president\'s wife, Tipper Gore, got involved. She led the center in the fight against heavy metal music. The center\'s main goals were to destroy heavy metal music and all other music that had a negative message. They were effective in banning some groups from record stores and cancelling some concerts. However, Tipper Gore\'s mission failed to kill off heavy metal music. The Parent Music Resource Center still exists, but it is not as powerful as it once was. This group never examined, whether heavy metal music could be a healthy outlet for aggression.A well-known psychologist from Durham, Stephanie Pinder-Amaker, said that music can influence a person\'s state of mind. In her studies, she found that "if people listen to music that is faster than their heart rate, such as heavy metal, it increases the heart rate. If you\'re trying to increase your energy level, it might be a good way to generate excitement." Heavy metal music by increasing the heart rate of its listeners can be seen as a form of exercise or a physical release.
Studies have been done on the effect of heavy metal music. Roe and King, child psychiatrists at the University of Iowa examined the effects, of heavy metal music on teenagers\' social behaviour. These studies show that many teens who thought seriously about suicide and abused drugs listened to heavy metal, but they also showed no direct connection between the music and these actions. Another recent survey done, by the University of Iowa reported that teenage female hard rock fans thought about suicide more often than people that listened to other types of music. However, most of the females who thought about suicide were too scared of dying to try it. One positive effect of this music was that even if the teenager was feeling bad and low, listening to his or her favourite music helped him or her feel better again.
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Musical preferences are as diverse as the people who listen to them. Different types of music have different reputations. Heavy metal music is often labelled as "negative". Yet others find it a harmless form of music like other types of music, such as jazz, blues, and even rap. The distinct style of heavy metal music can be grouped into three main sections. One popular style of heavy metal is death metal. Death metal has a more dark sound and eerie style than other forms of heavy metal. The music itself is fast, heavy, and loud. The images that death metal portrays are death, doom, destruction, suicide, sex, and drugs. Some see these images as harmful or having a negative effect on the listener. Another form of heavy metal music is speed metal. Speed metal has a more upbeat sound than death metal and is not as depressing as death metal. It is fast-paced and has a hard impact. The lead guitar follows a frenetic pace. This is in contrast to death metal which emphasizes rhythm guitar. The last type of heavy metal music is thrash metal. The name refers to both the thrashing sound of the music and the flailing movement of its listeners. The sound is very loud and has the same tone and style of speed metal. These styles, however, attract certain people.
The majority of people who listen to heavy metal music are suburban white males. These males range in ages between 14 and 24. They have a certain style of dress and way of life. They wear dark clothing with morbid images of death and destruction. This clothing can be seen to be a costume that advertises the teens\' musical preferences. It is a way of getting attention. Surprisingly, even though the crowds tend to be young, adults are also seen at these concerts. One example of an adult and a parent is Dave Mullins. He likes to take his sons to see death metal shows. Mullins says about death metal, "I did see one band that had a clear bag with a fetus inside it. It looked gross, but it was just a gag. When I\'m watching the kids, they\'re just letting off steam. When I was a kid, we used to beat people up after school. This seems better to me." Of course, not all parents agree with Mullins.
Parents want the best for their children, but sometimes their efforts are not beneficial. When parents nag their children about what they should and should not listen to, kids can become angry and depressed. This possibly can lead to drinking and drug use, and suicide. Parents can blame this behaviour on the music that their kids are listening to. A group of parents formed the Parent Music Resource Center in the \'80s. Even the vice-president\'s wife, Tipper Gore, got involved. She led the center in the fight against heavy metal music. The center\'s main goals were to destroy heavy metal music and all other music that had a negative message. They were effective in banning some groups from record stores and cancelling some concerts. However, Tipper Gore\'s mission failed to kill off heavy metal music. The Parent Music Resource Center still exists, but it is not as powerful as it once was. This group never examined, whether heavy metal music could be a healthy outlet for aggression.A well-known psychologist from Durham, Stephanie Pinder-Amaker, said that music can influence a person\'s state of mind. In her studies, she found that "if people listen to music that is faster than their heart rate, such as heavy metal, it increases the heart rate. If you\'re trying to increase your energy level, it might be a good way to generate excitement." Heavy metal music by increasing the heart rate of its listeners can be seen as a form of exercise or a physical release.
Studies have been done on the effect of heavy metal music. Roe and King, child psychiatrists at the University of Iowa examined the effects, of heavy metal music on teenagers\' social behaviour. These studies show that many teens who thought seriously about suicide and abused drugs listened to heavy metal, but they also showed no direct connection between the music and these actions. Another recent survey done, by the University of Iowa reported that teenage female hard rock fans thought about suicide more often than people that listened to other types of music. However, most of the females who thought about suicide were too scared of dying to try it. One positive effect of this music was that even if the teenager was feeling bad and low, listening to his or her favourite music helped him or her feel better again.
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